Measuring multivariate redundant information with pointwise common change in surprisal

The problem of how to properly quantify redundant information is an open question that has been the subject of much recent research. Redundant information refers to information about a target variable S that is common to two or more predictor variables Xi . It can be thought of as quantifying overlapping information content or similarities in the representation of S between the Xi . We present a new measure of redundancy which measures the common change in surprisal shared between variables at the local or pointwise level. We provide a game-theoretic operational definition of unique information, and use this to derive constraints which are used to obtain a maximum entropy distribution. Redundancy is then calculated from this maximum entropy distribution by counting only those local co-information terms which admit an unambiguous interpretation as redundant information. We show how this redundancy measure can be used within the framework of the Partial Information Decomposition (PID) to give an intuitive decomposition of the multivariate mutual information into redundant, unique and synergistic contributions. We compare our new measure to existing approaches over a range of example systems, including continuous Gaussian variables. Matlab code for the measure is provided, including all considered examples

Frontal top-down signals increase coupling of auditory low-frequency oscillations to continuous speech in human listeners

Humans show a remarkable ability to understand continuous speech even under adverse listening conditions. This ability critically relies on dynamically updated predictions of incoming sensory information, but exactly how top-down predictions improve speech processing is still unclear. Brain oscillations are a likely mechanism for these top-down predictions [1 and 2]. Quasi-rhythmic components in speech are known to entrain low-frequency oscillations in auditory areas [3 and 4], and this entrainment increases with intelligibility [5]. We hypothesize that top-down signals from frontal brain areas causally modulate the phase of brain oscillations in auditory cortex. We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) to monitor brain oscillations in 22 participants during continuous speech perception. We characterize prominent spectral components of speech-brain coupling in auditory cortex and use causal connectivity analysis (transfer entropy) to identify the top-down signals driving this coupling more strongly during intelligible speech than during unintelligible speech. We report three main findings. First, frontal and motor cortices significantly modulate the phase of speech-coupled low-frequency oscillations in auditory cortex, and this effect depends on intelligibility of speech. Second, top-down signals are significantly stronger for left auditory cortex than for right auditory cortex. Third, speech-auditory cortex coupling is enhanced as a function of stronger top-down signals. Together, our results suggest that low-frequency brain oscillations play a role in implementing predictive top-down control during continuous speech perception and that top-down control is largely directed at left auditory cortex. This suggests a close relationship between (left-lateralized) speech production areas and the implementation of top-down control in continuous speech perception

Simple acoustic features can explain phoneme-based predictions of cortical responses to speech

When we listen to speech, we have to make sense of a waveform of sound pressure. Hierarchical models of speech perception assume that, to extract semantic meaning, the signal is transformed into unknown, intermediate neuronal representations. Traditionally, studies of such intermediate representations are guided by linguistically defined concepts, such as phonemes. Here, we argue that in order to arrive at an unbiased understanding of the neuronal responses to speech, we should focus instead on representations obtained directly from the stimulus. We illustrate our view with a data-driven, information theoretic analysis of a dataset of 24 young, healthy humans who listened to a 1 h narrative while their magnetoencephalogram (MEG) was recorded. We find that two recent results, the improved performance of an encoding model in which annotated linguistic and acoustic features were combined and the decoding of phoneme subgroups from phoneme-locked responses, can be explained by an encoding model that is based entirely on acoustic features. These acoustic features capitalize on acoustic edges and outperform Gabor-filtered spectrograms, which can explicitly describe the spectrotemporal characteristics of individual phonemes. By replicating our results in publicly available electroencephalography (EEG) data, we conclude that models of brain responses based on linguistic features can serve as excellent benchmarks. However, we believe that in order to further our understanding of human cortical responses to speech, we should also explore low-level and parsimonious explanations for apparent high-level phenomena

Disentangling presentation and processing times in the brain

Visual object recognition seems to occur almost instantaneously. However, not only does it require hundreds of milliseconds of processing, but our eyes also typically fixate the object for hundreds of milliseconds. Consequently, information reaching our eyes at different moments is processed in the brain together. Moreover, information received at different moments during fixation is likely to be processed differently, notably because different features might be selectively attended at different moments. Here, we introduce a novel reverse correlation paradigm that allows us to uncover with millisecond precision the processing time course of specific information received on the retina at specific moments. Using faces as stimuli, we observed that processing at several electrodes and latencies was different depending on the moment at which information was received. Some of these variations were caused by a disruption occurring 160–200 ​ms after the face onset, suggesting a role of the N170 ERP component in gating information processing; others hinted at temporal compression and integration mechanisms. Importantly, the observed differences were not explained by simple adaptation or repetition priming, they were modulated by the task, and they were correlated with differences in behavior. These results suggest that top-down routines of information sampling are applied to the continuous visual input, even within a single eye fixation

Dynamic Construction of Reduced Representations in the Brain for Perceptual Decision Behavior

Summary: Over the past decade, extensive studies of the brain regions that support face, object, and scene recognition suggest that these regions have a hierarchically organized architecture that spans the occipital and temporal lobes [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14], where visual categorizations unfold over the first 250 ms of processing [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. This same architecture is flexibly involved in multiple tasks that require task-specific representations—e.g. categorizing the same object as “a car” or “a Porsche.” While we partly understand where and when these categorizations happen in the occipito-ventral pathway, the next challenge is to unravel how these categorizations happen. That is, how does high-dimensional input collapse in the occipito-ventral pathway to become low dimensional representations that guide behavior? To address this, we investigated what information the brain processes in a visual perception task and visualized the dynamic representation of this information in brain activity. To do so, we developed stimulus information representation (SIR), an information theoretic framework, to tease apart stimulus information that supports behavior from that which does not. We then tracked the dynamic representations of both in magneto-encephalographic (MEG) activity. Using SIR, we demonstrate that a rapid (∼170 ms) reduction of behaviorally irrelevant information occurs in the occipital cortex and that representations of the information that supports distinct behaviors are constructed in the right fusiform gyrus (rFG). Our results thus highlight how SIR can be used to investigate the component processes of the brain by considering interactions between three variables (stimulus information, brain activity, behavior), rather than just two, as is the current norm

Revealing the information contents of memory within the stimulus information representation framework

The information contents of memory are the cornerstone of the most influential models in cognition. To illustrate, consider that in predictive coding, a prediction implies that specific information is propagated down from memory through the visual hierarchy. Likewise, recognizing the input implies that sequentially accrued sensory evidence is successfully matched with memorized information (categorical knowledge). Although the existing models of prediction, memory, sensory representation and categorical decision are all implicitly cast within an information processing framework, it remains a challenge to precisely specify what this information is, and therefore where, when and how the architecture of the brain dynamically processes it to produce behaviour. Here, we review a framework that addresses these challenges for the studies of perception and categorization–stimulus information representation (SIR). We illustrate how SIR can reverse engineer the information contents of memory from behavioural and brain measures in the context of specific cognitive tasks that involve memory. We discuss two specific lessons from this approach that generally apply to memory studies: the importance of task, to constrain what the brain does, and of stimulus variations, to identify the specific information contents that are memorized, predicted, recalled and replayed

Different computations over the same inputs produce selective behavior in algorithmic brain networks

A key challenge in neuroimaging remains to understand where, when, and now particularly how human brain networks compute over sensory inputs to achieve behavior. To study such dynamic algorithms from mass neural signals, we recorded the magnetoencephalographic (MEG) activity of participants who resolved the classic XOR, OR, and AND functions as overt behavioral tasks (N = 10 participants/task, N-of-1 replications). Each function requires a different computation over the same inputs to produce the task-specific behavioral outputs. In each task, we found that source-localized MEG activity progresses through four computational stages identified within individual participants: (1) initial contralateral representation of each visual input in occipital cortex, (2) a joint linearly combined representation of both inputs in midline occipital cortex and right fusiform gyrus, followed by (3) nonlinear task-dependent input integration in temporal-parietal cortex, and finally (4) behavioral response representation in postcentral gyrus. We demonstrate the specific dynamics of each computation at the level of individual sources. The spatiotemporal patterns of the first two computations are similar across the three tasks; the last two computations are task specific. Our results therefore reveal where, when, and how dynamic network algorithms perform different computations over the same inputs to produce different behaviors

History biases reveal novel dissociations between perceptual and metacognitive decision-making

Human decision-making and self-reflection often depend on context and internal biases. For instance, decisions are often influenced by preceding choices, regardless of their relevance. It remains unclear how choice history influences different levels of the decision-making hierarchy. We used analyses grounded in information and detection theories to estimate the relative strength of perceptual and metacognitive history biases and to investigate whether they emerge from common/unique mechanisms. Although both perception and metacognition tended to be biased toward previous responses, we observed novel dissociations that challenge normative theories of confidence. Different evidence levels often informed perceptual and metacognitive decisions within observers, and response history distinctly influenced first- (perceptual) and second- (metacognitive) order decision-parameters, with the metacognitive bias likely to be strongest and most prevalent in the general population. We propose that recent choices and subjective confidence represent heuristics, which inform first- and second-order decisions in the absence of more relevant evidence

Priority accuracy by dispatch centers and Emergency Medical Services professionals in trauma patients:a cohort study

PURPOSE: Priority-setting by dispatch centers and Emergency Medical Services professionals has a major impact on pre-hospital triage and times of trauma patients. Patients requiring specialized care benefit from expedited transport to higher-level trauma centers, while transportation of these patients to lower-level trauma centers is associated with higher mortality rates. This study aims to evaluate the accuracy of priority-setting by dispatch centers and Emergency Medical Services professionals. METHODS: This observational study included trauma patients transported from the scene of injury to a trauma center. Priority-setting was evaluated in terms of the proportion of patients requiring specialized trauma care assigned with the highest priority (i.e., sensitivity), undertriage, and overtriage. Patients in need of specialized care were defined by a composite resource-based endpoint. An Injury Severity Score ≥ 16 served as a secondary reference standard. RESULTS: Between January 2015 and December 2017, records of 114,459 trauma patients were collected, of which 3327 (2.9%) patients were in need of specialized care according to the primary reference standard. Dispatch centers and Emergency Medical Services professionals assigned 83.8% and 74.5% of these patients with the highest priority, respectively. Undertriage rates ranged between 22.7 and 65.5% in the different prioritization subgroups. There were differences between dispatch and transport priorities in 17.7% of the patients. CONCLUSION: The majority of patients that required specialized care were assigned with the highest priority by the dispatch centers and Emergency Medical Services professionals. Highly accurate priority criteria could improve the quality of pre-hospital triage. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00068-021-01685-1