Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: access to safe drinking-water is a fundamental requirement for good health and is also a human right. Global access to safe drinking-water is monitored by WHO and UNICEF using as an indicator “use of an improved source,” which does not account for water quality measurements. Our objectives were to determine whether water from “improved” sources is less likely to contain fecal contamination than “unimproved” sources and to assess the extent to which contamination varies by source type and setting.Methods and findings: studies in Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish were identified from online databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, and grey literature. Studies in low- and middle-income countries published between 1990 and August 2013 that assessed drinking-water for the presence of Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) were included provided they associated results with a particular source type. In total 319 studies were included, reporting on 96,737 water samples. The odds of contamination within a given study were considerably lower for “improved” sources than “unimproved” sources (odds ratio [OR] = 0.15 [0.10–0.21], I2 = 80.3% [72.9–85.6]). However over a quarter of samples from improved sources contained fecal contamination in 38% of 191 studies. Water sources in low-income countries (OR = 2.37 [1.52–3.71]; p<0.001) and rural areas (OR = 2.37 [1.47–3.81] p<0.001) were more likely to be contaminated. Studies rarely reported stored water quality or sanitary risks and few achieved robust random selection. Safety may be overestimated due to infrequent water sampling and deterioration in quality prior to consumption.Conclusion: access to an “improved source” provides a measure of sanitary protection but does not ensure water is free of fecal contamination nor is it consistent between source types or settings. International estimates therefore greatly overstate use of safe drinking-water and do not fully reflect disparities in access. An enhanced monitoring strategy would combine indicators of sanitary protection with measures of water qualit

Handbook for Learning-centred evaluation of Computer-facilitated learning projects in higher education

This handbook supports a project funded by the Australian Government Committee for University Teaching and Staff Development (CUTSD). The amended project title is “Staff Development in Evaluation of Technology-based Teaching Development Projects: An Action Inquiry Approach”. The project is hosted by Murdoch University on behalf of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE), as a consortium of 11 universities. The rationale of the project is to guide a group of university staff through the evaluation of a Computer-facilitated Learning (CFL1) project by a process of action inquiry and mentoring, supported by the practical and theoretical material contained in this handbook

Dynamics of perpendicular recording heads

3D modeling and inductance measurements were used to design an ultra-high frequency perpendicular system. Kerr microscopy and spin-stand experiments with focused ion beam (FI-B) trimmed perpendicular heads and perpendicular media directly verified the high frequency concepts

The Occurrence of Autoimmune Diseases in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis and Their Families

The aims of this study were to determine whether the occurrence of autoimmune diseases is increased in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and their families and whether this is influenced by the type of MS. We conducted a case-control study using a questionnaire design to determine whether the prevalence of 11 autoimmune diseases is increased in patients with MS and their first-degree relatives compared to a random population control group and their first-degree relatives. We found that the total combined prevalence of the 11autoimmune diseases was higher in the MS patients than in the controls, with an odds ratio of 1.7 (95% confidence interval 0.9-3.2; P= 0.10) increasing to 1.9 (1.0-3.5; P= 0.05) after adjusting for age. For persons aged under 60 years, the odds ratio was 2.3 (1.1-4.6). We also found that there was a significant increase in the total combined prevalence of the autoimmune diseases in the first-degree relatives of MS patients compared to the first-degree relatives of the control group (P= 0.003, odds ratio 2.2, confidence interval 1.3-3.7). Patients with primary progressive MS did not differ from patients with relapsing-remitting or secondary progressive MS in the personal or familial occurrence of autoimmune disease. In conclusion, although there were sources of possible bias, this study suggests that individuals with MS have a genetic predisposition to autoimmunity in general

Distinct NAD(P)H binding configurations revealed by fluorescence lifetime, anisotropy and polarised two-photon absorption

NADH and NADPH play key roles in the regulation of metabolism. Their endogenous fluorescence is sensitive to enzyme binding, allowing changes in cellular metabolic state to be determined using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). However, to fully uncover the underlying biochemistry, the relationships between their fluorescence and binding dynamics require greater understanding. Here we accomplish this through time- and polarisation-resolved fluorescence and polarised two-photon absorption measurements. Two lifetimes result from binding of both NADH to lactate dehydrogenase and NADPH to isocitrate dehydrogenase. The composite fluorescence anisotropy indicates the shorter (1.3-1.6ns) decay component to be accompanied by local motion of the nicotinamide ring, pointing to attachment solely via the adenine moiety. For the longer lifetime (3.2-4.4ns), the nicotinamide conformational freedom is found to be fully restricted. As full and partial nicotinamide binding are recognised steps in dehydrogenase catalysis, our results unify photophysical, structural and functional aspects of NADH and NADPH binding and clarify the biochemical processes that underlie their contrasting intracellular lifetimes

Eyes on the bog. Long-term monitoring network for UK peatlands

Eyes on the Bog provides a scientifically robust, repeatable, low tech, long-term monitoring initiative. The standardised methodology enables individual peatland sites to be consistently monitored across the UK, creating a network of comparable sites. The initiative employs cheap, simple techniques and modern technology to enable useful monitoring information to be collected by peatland community employees or volunteers on: Peat subsidence and carbon loss Carbon capture Water table behaviour Peat soil condition Vegetation status, structure and composition Historical context of change and current trajectorie

The structure of causal sets

More often than not, recently popular structuralist interpretations of physical theories leave the central concept of a structure insufficiently precisified. The incipient causal sets approach to quantum gravity offers a paradigmatic case of a physical theory predestined to be interpreted in structuralist terms. It is shown how employing structuralism lends itself to a natural interpretation of the physical meaning of causal sets theory. Conversely, the conceptually exceptionally clear case of causal sets is used as a foil to illustrate how a mathematically informed rigorous conceptualization of structure serves to identify structures in physical theories. Furthermore, a number of technical issues infesting structuralist interpretations of physical theories such as difficulties with grounding the identity of the places of highly symmetrical physical structures in their relational profile and what may resolve these difficulties can be vividly illustrated with causal sets.Comment: 19 pages, 4 figure

Mass Spectrometry in the Home and Garden

Identification of active components in a variety of chemical products used directly by consumers is described at both trace and bulk levels using mass spectrometry. The combination of external ambient ionization with a portable mass spectrometer capable of tandem mass spectrometry provides high chemical specificity and sensitivity as well as allowing on-site monitoring. These experiments were done using a custom-built portable ion trap mass spectrometer in combination with the ambient ionization methods of paper spray, leaf spray, and low temperature plasma ionization. Bactericides, garden chemicals, air fresheners, and other products were examined. Herbicide applied to suburban lawns was detected in situ on single leaves 5 d after application

On the shopfloor: exploring the impact of teacher trade unions on school-based industrial relations

Teachers are highly unionised workers and their trade unions exert an important influence on the shaping and implementation of educational policy. Despite this importance there is relatively little analysis of the impact of teacher trade unions in educational management literature. Very little empirical research has sought to establish the impact of teacher unions at school level. In an era of devolved management and quasi-markets this omission is significant. New personnel issues continue to emerge at school level and this may well generate increased trade union activity at the workplace. This article explores the extent to which devolved management is drawing school-based union representation into a more prominent role. It argues that whilst there can be significant differences between individual schools, increased school autonomy is raising the profile of trade union activity in the workplace, and this needs to be better reflected in educational management research