Fiscal decentralisation, efficiency, and growth

Much of the recent worldwide trend towards devolution has been driven by the belief that fiscal decentralization is likely to have a positive effect on government efficiency and economic growth. It is generally assumed that the transfer of powers and resources to lower tiers of government allows for a better matching of public policies to local needs and thus for a better allocation of resources. These factors, in turn, are expected to lead to an improvement in regional economic performance, if subnational authorities shift resources from current to capital expenditures in search of a better response to local needs. This paper tests these assumptions empirically by analysing the evolution of subnational expenditure categories and regional growth in Germany, India, Mexico, Spain, and the USA. We find that, contrary to expectations, decentralisation has coincided in the sample countries with a relative increase in current expenditures at the expense of capital expenditures, which has been associated with lower levels of economic growth in countries where devolution has been driven from above (India and Mexico), but not in those where it has been driven from below (Spain). The paper hypothesises that the differences in legitimacy between the central or federal government and subnational governments in top-down and bottom-up processes of devolution may be at the origin of the diverse capacity to deliver greater allocative and productive efficiency and, eventually, greater economic growth by devolved governments.devolution; fiscal decentralisation; subnational expenditure; economic growth; Germany; India; Mexico; Spain; United States

Feed quality and safety measures to improve the smallholder dairy value chain in Tanzania

Irish Ai

Towards solutions for year round feed availability: Experiences on Innovation platform and value chain approaches in Lushoto District, Tanzania

Irish Ai

FACILE ENANTIOSELECTIVE PALLADIUM CATALYSED TRANSFER HYDROGENATION OF α-METHYLCINNAMIC ACID IN THE PRESENCE OF OPTICAL PURE ORGANIC ACIDS

An efficient and enantioselective method for catalytic transfer hydrogenation of the C=C double bond of α-methylcinnamic acid with the aid of chiral organic acids as the hydrogen donors and palladium(II) chloride as the catalyst is reported. Enantiomeric excess was assayed using optical rotation measurements. The best stereoselectivity was achieved when L-(+)-tartaric acid was used as the hydrogen donor and acetonitrile as the solvent. KEYWORDS: Enantioselective, Chiral, α-Methylcinnamic acid, Transfer hydrogenation, Palladium(II) chloride Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 2007, 21(3), 457-460

the interplay of two wicked problems

Funding Information: This work was funded by VLIR-UOS, grant numbers TZ2019SIN263 and TZ2020JOI032A101. Publisher Copyright: ©Concern is justified observing the link between the AIDS and COVID-19 pandemics. COVID-19 outcomes are significantly worse in many people living with HIV (PLHIV), even when vaccinated, because of their impaired immune system. Moreover, CD4 T-cells are affected by both HIV and SARS-CoV-2.1-3 SARS-CoV-2 variants can evolve in immunosuppressed patients due to prolonged viral replication in the context of an inadequate immune response.4 Accelerated intrahost evolution of SARS-CoV-2 was reported in a South African HIV patient with antiretroviral therapy (ART) failure.5 6 With 25 million HIV patients in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) of whom an estimated 8 million are not virologically suppressed, this potentially creates a reservoir for future variants. Such variants, arising in PLHIV anywhere in the world, can spread to other continents, as has been reported for variants of concern (VoCs) (Beta, Omicron) and variants of interest (B.1.6.20, B.1.640.2) that arose in Africa.7-9 Conversely, the COVID-19 pandemic impacts HIV treatment programmes, due to supply chain issues, overburdening of healthcare systems, limiting access to testing, treatment and prevention programmes and further increasing inequalities.10 Modelled COVID-19 disruptions of HIV programmes in SSA included decreased functionality of HIV prevention programmes, HIV testing and treatment, healthcare services such as viral load testing, adherence counselling, drug regimen switches and ART interruptions, which may lead to selection of drug-resistant HIV.11 A 6-month interruption affecting 50% of the population would lead to a median number of excess deaths of 296 000, during 1 year. Scientists advocate for the AIDS and COVID-19 pandemics in Africa to be addressed simultaneously, by increasing African access to COVID-19 vaccines, prioritising research on the interaction between HIV care and COVID-19, maintaining high-quality HIV services and integrating health services for both viruses.7 Both the COVID-19 and the AIDS pandemic, more specifically the issue of HIV drug resistance (HIVDR), have previously been described as wicked problems which are best studied as complex adaptive systems (CASs).12-15Wicked problems consist of diverse interconnected factors and require complexity-informed and locally adapted solutions rather than one solution that fits all. We recently designed a qualitative model of all known factors influencing HIVDR in SSA and analysed its complexity.13 Our detailed systems map featured three main feedback loops driving HIVDR, representing (1) the alternation between adherence and non-adherence, (2) the impact of an overburdened healthcare system and (3) the importance of sustaining global efforts of tackling HIVDR even when new antiretroviral drugs with high genetic barriers become available. These HIV-related feedback loops are interconnected with COVID-19 pandemic impact (in yellow, figure 1). The loop starts from PLHIV with an unsuppressed viral load, which weakens the immune system and may in turn slow down immune clearance of SARS-CoV-2, allowing prolonged replication and mutation of the virus in the context of an inadequate immune response. Prolonged viral clearance facilitates the selection of immune escape SARS-CoV-2 variants. Variants may emerge that have a selective advantage and therefore may spread through populations due to increased transmissibility (with possibly increased virulence), thereby creating an additional burden on the healthcare system, putting the overall healthcare system and the HIV care at risk. These stressors on the healthcare system lead to a higher risk of unsuppressed viral load in PLHIV, increasing the risk of HIVDR. Figure 1 shows the need to address both wicked problems simultaneously and to do so in a complexity-informed manner as they are inevitably linked and influence each other. Evidently, the exact interconnections between both pandemics need to be locally assessed. For instance, a study in South Africa showed that while lockdown severely impacted HIV testing and ART initiation, ART provision was largely maintained, indicating that the strength of the connection between the virological suppression-related loop and the pandemic, indicated in figure 1, are context-dependent.16publishersversionpublishe

The Prevalence and Drug Sensitivity of Tuberculosis among Patients Dying in Hospital in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: A Postmortem Study

A postmortem study by Ted Cohen and colleagues reveals a huge toll of tuberculosis among patients dying in hospitals in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Transmission dynamics of pulmonary tuberculosis between autochthonous and immigrant sub-populations

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The overall incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Western Europe has been declining since the 19^thCentury. However, immigrant sub-groups from high-prevalence countries are slowing down this trend. The aim of this study was to describe how immigration influences TB transmission in Germany. For that we prospectively investigated the dynamics of TB transmission between TB high-prevalence immigrant and TB low-prevalence local populations with molecular epidemiological methods and conventional contact investigations. Besides, we assessed transmission in relation to social mixing using an innovative tool that measures the integration of immigrants into the local social environment.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A prospective study of confirmed culture positive cases of pulmonary TB and their contacts was carried out in a German federal state from 2003 to 2005. Data for the study included: 1) case data routinely collected by the local public health staff and transmitted to the state health office and the national surveillance centre, 2) a study questionnaire designed to capture social interactions of relevance for TB transmission and 3) molecular genotyping data (IS<it>6110 </it>DNA fingerprint and spoligotyping). The proportion of German cases caused by foreign-born cases, and vice versa, was estimated and an integration index was computed using a selected set of questions from the study questionnaire.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>A total of 749 cases of culture-positive pulmonary tuberculosis voluntarily enrolled in the study, representing 57.8% of all registered cases diagnosed over the study period. Data that included study questionnaire and DNA fingerprinting were available for 41% (n = 308) of the study participants. Forty-seven clusters, defined as a least two cases infected by the same TB strains, were identified by molecular methods and included 132 (17%) of the study participants. Epidemiological links were identified for 28% of the clusters by conventional epidemiological data. In mixed clusters, defined as clusters including German and foreign-born individuals, the probability of cases to be caused by foreign-born cases was estimated at 18.3%. We observed a trend to mixed clusters with increasing time spent by immigrants in the host country. This group also presented comparatively higher integration indexes than immigrants in immigrant-only clusters.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Our results confirm the findings of other studies that there is no significant TB transmission from TB high-prevalence immigrant to TB low-prevalence autochthonous population. This may be explained by the good performance of tuberculosis screening programmes for certain groups arriving in Germany from high- prevalence countries, by a low degree of mixing of immigrants with the local population or by a combination of both.</p

Migrant tuberculosis: the extent of transmission in a low burden country

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Human migration caused by political unrest, wars and poverty is a major topic in international health. Infectious diseases like tuberculosis follow their host, with potential impact on both the migrants and the population in the recipient countries. In this study, we evaluate <it>Mycobacterium tuberculosis </it>transmission between the national population and migrants in Denmark.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Register study based on IS<it>6110</it>-RFLP results from nationwide genotyping of tuberculosis cases during 1992 through 2004. Cases with 100% identical genotypes were defined as clustered and part of a transmission chain. Origin of clusters involving both Danes and migrants was defined as Danish/migrant/uncertain. Subsequently, the proportion of cases likely infected by the "opposite" ethnic group was estimated.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>4,631 cases were included, representing 99% of culture confirmed cases during 1992 through 2004. Migrants contributed 61.6% of cases. Up to 7.9% (95% CI 7.0-8.9) of migrants were infected by Danes. The corresponding figure was 5.8% (95% CI 4.8-7.0) for Danes. Thus, transmission from Danes to migrants occurred up to 2.5 (95% CI 1.8-3.5) times more frequent than vice versa (OR = 1). A dominant strain, Cluster-2, was almost exclusively found in Danes, particular younger-middle-aged males.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Transmission between Danes and migrants is limited, and risk of being infected by the "opposite" ethnic group is highest for migrants. TB-control efforts should focus on continues micro-epidemics, e.g. with Cluster-2 in Danes, prevention of reactivation TB in high-risk migrants, and outbreaks in socially marginalized migrants, such as Somalis and Greenlanders. Fears that TB in migrants poses a threat for resident Danes seem exaggerated and unjustified. We believe this to be true for other low incidence countries as well.</p