KARBONISASI LIMBAH KELAPA SAWIT DENGAN PROSES HIDROTERMAL SEBAGAI BAHAN BAKU ELEKTRODA SUPERKAPASITOR

Limbah kelapa sawit merupakan sumber biomassa yang melimpah di Indonesia. Ketersediaan biomassa kelapa sawit ini dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai bahan baku produk bernilai tambah tinggi. Salah satu produk yang dapat dihasilkan adalah karbon aktif. Karbon aktif merupakan material berpori dan memiliki konduktivitas yang baik, membuat karbon aktif cocok digunakan sebagai material elektroda superkapasitor. Karbon aktif dibuat melalui dua proses utama yaitu karbonisasi dan aktivasi. Proses karbonisasi yang dilakukan adalah karbonisasi hidrotermal dilanjutkan dengan aktivasi secara fisika. Penelitian ini difokuskan pada pembuatan karbon aktif berbasis limbah kelapa sawit dengan proses karbonisasi hidrotermal untuk bahan baku superkapasitor. Mesopore area dari karbon aktif terbentuk akibat penggunaan CaCl2 sebagai agen pengaktivasi selama proses hidrotermal. Karbon aktif yang dihasilkan dari tandan kosong kelapa sawit memiliki luas permukaan 375 – 723 m2/g dan ukuran pori 3,4 – 5,6 nm. Pada penelitian ini, karbon aktif digunakan sebagai elektroda kerja pada superkapasitor tipe hybrid simetrikal. Sel superkapasitor ini mampu menghasilkan kapasitansi sebesar 4,3015 F/g

Low Temperature Catalytic-Transfer Hydrogenation of Candlenut Oil

Fatty acids containing more than one double bond (polyunsaturated fatty acids) indicated by high iodine value (more than 120 g I2/100 g oil) are prone either to oxidative degradation or thermal degradation leading to the appearance of undesirable compounds or to thermal oligo-/polymerization causing gum formation. Therefore, polyunsaturated bonds in the fatty acid chains should be hydrogenated into monounsaturated ones. The conventional method using hydrogen (direct hydrogenation) at relatively high temperature and pressure with the aid of nickel as catalyst, which prone to explosion due to the presence of free gaseous hydrogen at high temperature and pressure. Catalytic transfer-hydrogenation (CTH) therefore is proposed as a promising alternative method, enabling CTH at room condition without the presence of free hydrogen. This research is focused to explore effects of temperature and reaction time to iodine value reduction on CTH of candlenut oil, including kinetics of its methyl ester. The hydrogenation utilizes Ag-Ni/silica 150 Å as catalyst and potassium formate (6M) as hydrogen donor. Three reaction temperatures were selected (40oC, 60oC and 78oC), where each reactions were performed for 4, 8, 12 and 16 hours. Hydrogenation was performed in batch reactor using isopropyl alcohol as solvent. Results showed that iodine values decreased with the increase of temperature and longer reaction time. The iodine value was still decreasing at 16 hours reaction time, indicating the possibility of longer reaction time. However, at 16 hours time, the iodine value yield has been within biodiesel standard range (Indonesian National Standard). The hydrogenation was first order reaction towards methyl ester double bonds concentration. Ko and E for candlenut methyl ester were 163.15/hour and 25.26 kJ/mol

Production of Biogasoline via Pyrolysis of Oleic Acid Basic Soaps

In this study, an investigation on the effect of the Ca/Mg/Zn mixing ratio on gasoline-range hydrocarbon production by oleic basic soap pyrolysis was carried out. The ratios of calcium to magnesium used were 15%, 35%, 50%, 65%, and 85% with constant Zn. Oleic basic soap was obtained by saponification with the modified fusion method. Pyrolysis experiments were carried out at 450 °C using a semi-continuous reactor with a feed flow rate of 5 g/15 min. The process produced three fractions, i.e., gas, solid, and liquid (bio-hydrocarbon + water). The gas products were characterized by GC-TCD, and the results showed the presence of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and methane. Based on the GC-FID and FT-IR results, the bio-hydrocarbon comprised mainly homologous hydrocarbon from carbon number C7 to C19 containing n-alkanes, alkenes, various iso-alkanes, and some oxygenated compounds. All calcium ratios in the oleic basic soap produced hydrocarbon in the range of gasoline (C7-C11) as the dominant product. The maximum yield of gasoline (74.86%) was achieved at 15% calcium

Catalytic and Thermal Decarboxylation of Mg-Zn Basic Soap to Produce Drop-in Fuel in Diesel Boiling Ranges

Fatty acid deoxygenation is a method for producing renewable hydrocarbon fuels such as green diesel, jet biofuel and biogasoline. In the present commercial method, deoxygenation is directly applied to vegetable oils through liquid phase hydrotreatment. This method is expensive because it consumes a large amount of hydrogen and requires severe operating conditions. The objective of this study was the production of a diesel-like hydrocarbon fuel that can be considered as drop-in replacement for petroleum-based diesel fuels, by catalytic thermal decarboxylation of Mg-Zn basic soap. In particular, this study investigated the decarboxylation of Mg-Zn basic soap at low temperature and pressure, without external supply of hydrogen. The Mg-Zn basic soap (9/1 mole ratio of Mg/Zn) was derived from palm stearin and decarboxylated at 350 °C and atmospheric pressure for 5 hours. The basic soap effectively decarboxylated, yielding a diesel-like hydrocarbon fuel with a liquid product yield of 62%-weight. The resulting hydrocarbon product is a complex mixture consisting of normal paraffins in the range of carbon chain length C8–C19, iso-paraffins and various olefin products

Production of Biogasoline via Pyrolysis of Oleic Acid Basic Soaps

In this study, an investigation on the effect of the Ca/Mg/Zn mixing ratio on gasoline-range hydrocarbon production by oleic basic soap pyrolysis was carried out. The ratios of calcium to magnesium used were 15%, 35%, 50%, 65%, and 85% with constant Zn. Oleic basic soap was obtained by saponification with the modified fusion method. Pyrolysis experiments were carried out at 450 °C using a semi-continuous reactor with a feed flow rate of 5 g/15 min. The process produced three fractions, i.e., gas, solid, and liquid (bio-hydrocarbon + water). The gas products were characterized by GC-TCD, and the results showed the presence of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and methane. Based on the GC-FID and FT-IR results, the bio-hydrocarbon comprised mainly homologous hydrocarbon from carbon number C7 to C19 containing n-alkanes, alkenes, various iso-alkanes, and some oxygenated compounds. All calcium ratios in the oleic basic soap produced hydrocarbon in the range of gasoline (C7-C11) as the dominant product. The maximum yield of gasoline (74.86%) was achieved at 15% calcium

Comparative Study of Nyamplung (Callophylum inophyllum) Kernel Oil Obtained from Mechanical and Chemical Extraction for Biofuel Production

Nyamplung (Callophylum inophyllum) contains oil around 40-73% in its seed. It has recently gained recognition as a potential source for biofuel production. The oil recovery process from renewable sources such as nyamplung is widely carried out by using chemical extraction with solvents. Nevertheless, this method is considered costly and there are safety issues as well as environmental concerns related to the solvents used. Therefore, mechanical extraction has emerged as an alternative method. In this study, the nyamplung oil recovered by mechanical extraction via hydraulic press and chemical extraction utilizing Soxhlet extraction was compared. Soxhlet extraction was carried out by using n-hexane as a solvent with a temperature of 70 oC for 5 hours. Before the extraction process, the kernel was initially pretreated to reduce the particle sizes and the water content. The results show that the oil yield recovered using the hydraulic press is 58%, which is comparable with the value obtained from Soxhlet extraction (65%). The oil characteristics were also compared, and the profiling shows no significant difference in the properties (saponification value, acid value, and iodine value) of oils recovered using both methods. The composition of fatty acids was also analyzed for utilization as a biofuel feedstock. Higher content of oleic acid was observed in oil resulted from chemical extraction while mechanical extraction yielded oil with higher palmitic acid content.A B S T R A KNyamplung (Callophylum inophyllum) mengandung minyak sebesar 40-73% dalam bijinya dan belakangan ini diakui sebagai sumber potensial untuk pembuatan biofuel. Proses perolehan minyak nabati dari biji nyamplung pada umumnya dilakukan menggunakan ekstraksi kimia dengan pelarut. Akan tetapi, metode ini cenderung berbiaya tinggi serta memiliki isu berkaitan dengan keselamatan proses dan dampak lingkungan berkaitan dengan penggunaan pelarut. Oleh karena itu, metode ekstraksi mekanis banyak dikembangkan sebagai alternatif metode ekstraksi minyak. Dalam penelitian ini, hasil perolehan minyak nyamplung melalui penekanan hidrolik dibandingkan dengan hasil dari ekstraksi Soxhlet. Ekstraksi Soxhlet dilakukan dengan pelarut n-heksana pada suhu 70 oC selama 5 jam. Sebelum proses ekstraksi, biji nyamplung mengalami perlakuan awal terlebih dahulu dengan cara digiling untuk mengurangi ukuran biji dan dipanaskan untuk mengurangi kadar air. Hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan bahwa yield minyak dari ektraksi mekanik sebesar 58% sementara yield dari ekstraksi Soxhlet adalah 65%. Karakteristik minyak yang dihasilkan melalui kedua metode ini tidak menunjukkan perbedaan yang signifikan dalam hal nilai saponifikasi, nilai asam, dan nilai iodine. Analisis komposisi asam lemak dari kedua minyak yang dihasilkan menunjukkan bahwa minyak yang diperoleh dari ekstraksi kimia mengandung asam oleat dengan persentase yang lebih tinggi sementara minyak dari hasil ekstraksi mekanik memiliki persentase asam palmitat yang lebih tinggi

Hidrogenasi Hidrotermal Katalitik Asam Oleat dengan Produksi Hidrogen secara in-situ Menggunakan Katalis NiO/y-Al2O3

Hydrogenation reaction is one of the most important reactions for the oleochemical industry to convert unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids and their derivatives. The need for large amounts of hydrogen in hydrogenation reactions will be a problem in terms of hydrogen availability and economy. Catalytic hydrothermal technology offers several advantages including the ability to produce hydrogen in-situ. The focus of this research is to evaluate the effect of metal charge addition on the catalyst, the effect of tin addition on NiO/y-Al2O3 catalyst and the effect of glycerol addition as a source of H2 production in-situ on the hydrogenation conversion of oleic acid. The catalyst was prepared by dry impregnation method. XRD, XRF and BET characterization of the catalysts confirmed the presence of Ni and Sn metals on the catalysts. Hydrogenation conversion in the reaction without glycerol using NiO/y-Al2O3 catalyst at 300oC for 6 hours did not show significant changes with the addition of metal loading. However, the addition of Sn metal increased the selectivity of in-situ H2 production used to hydrogenate oleic acid with a hydrogenation conversion of 36%. The addition of glycerol to the reactants also increased the hydrogenation conversion compared to the reaction without glycerol.Reaksi hidrogenasi adalah salah satu reaksi yang sangat penting bagi industri oleokimia untuk mengubah asam-asam lemak tak jenuh menjadi asam lemak jenuh dan turunannya. Kebutuhan hidrogen dalam jumlah besar pada reaksi hidrogenasi akan menjadi suatu masalah dalam hal ketersediaan hidrogen dan keekonomisannya. Teknologi hidrotermal katalitik menawarkan beberapa keuntungan diantaranya dapat memproduksi hidrogen secara in-situ. Fokus penelitian ini adalah untuk untuk mengevaluasi pengaruh penambahan muatan logam pada katalis, pengaruh penambahan timah pada katalis NiO/y-Al2O3 dan pengaruh penambahan gliserol sebagai sumber produksi H2 secara in-situ terhadap konversi hidrogenasi asam oleat. Katalis dibuat dengan metode impregnasi kering. Karakterisasi XRD, XRF dan BET pada katalis mengkonfirmasi keberadaan logam Ni dan Sn pada katalis. Konversi Hidrogenasi pada reaksi tanpa gliserol menggunakan katalis NiO/y-Al2O3 pada 300oC selama 6 jam tidak menunjukkan perubahan yang signifikan dengan penambahan muatan logam. Namun, penambahan logam Sn meningkatkan selektivitas produksi H2 in-situ yang digunakan untuk menghidrogenasi asam oleat dengan konversi hidrogenasi sebesar 36%. Penambahan gliserol pada reaktan juga meningkatkan konversi hidrogenasi dibandingkan dengan reaksi tanpa gliserol

Characteristics of Oxidative Storage Stability of Canola Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Stabilised with Antioxidants

The storage effects on the oxidation characteristics of fatty acid methyl ester of canola oil (CME) were investigated in this study.CME stabilised with two antioxidants, i.e.2,6-di-tert-bytyl-p-cresol (BHT) and 6,6-di-tert-butyl-2, 2'-methylendi-p-cresol (BPH), was stored at 20, 40 and 60°C.The oxidation stability data were measured by the Rancimat test method and it was found that both BHT and BPH addition increased the oxidation resistance of the CME. The results showed that when BPH or BHT was added at a concentration of 100 ppm, the oxidation induction period of the neat CME samples increased from 5.53 h to 6.93 hand 6.14 h, respectively. Comparing both antioxidants, BPH proved to be more effective in increasing the oxidation resistance when both antioxidants were added at the same concentration. Furthermore, the oxidation induction timedecreased linearly with the storage time. It was shown that the oxidation occurred rapidly in the first 8 weeks of storage. Later, a kinetic study was undertaken and first-order kinetics were applied to explain the oxidation characteristics of the CME added with antioxidants. This kinetic study focused on exploiting the activation energy values obtained from the Arrheniusequations. Also, the oxidation effects on other quality parameters, including acid value, peroxide value, kinematic viscosity, and water content, were examined

Catalytic thermal decarboxylation of palm kernel oil basic soap into drop-in fuel

Catalytic thermal decarboxylation of basic soaps derived from palm kernel oil to produce dropin fuel was investigated. The C12/14 and C12/16 methyl ester had been used as the model compounds of this study. The purpose of this study was to produce drop-in fuel, especially jets biofuel, by catalytic thermal decarboxylation of basic soaps from palm kernel oils. In this study, two types of Magnesium-Zinc metal combination were used for preparing the basic soaps, both directly have a role as a catalyst. The reaction was carried out at 370°C and atmospheric pressure for 3 hours in the semi-batch reactor. Approximately 41 and 43 weight% of the yield and selectivity of about 97 and 98% toward the jets biofuel had been obtained in both experiments, respectively. The results showed that decarboxylation of basic soaps of C12/14 and C12/16 methyl ester were converted into drop-in fuel, especially jets biofuel in the relatively good yield of conversion

Morphological and thermal stability characteristics of oil palm frond and trunk by ultrasound-low alkali-based pretreatment

Oil palm fronds and trunks leave a lot of lignocellulosic residues in the agricultural field. Due to its highly complex chemical composition, the lignocellulosic matrix is difficult to break down. This study aims to investigate the effects of chemo-physical pretreatment of oil palm fronds and trunks with ultrasound in a low alkali concentration solution. The microstructure and thermal stability of the oil palm frond and trunk were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and a thermogravimetric (TG) method. SEM analysis proved the deterioration of the lignocellulose matrix of the ultrasound-assisted alkali pretreatment compared to raw. According to the TG results, the decomposition temperature curve of treated oil palm shifted to the right side after 50 percent mass degradation, indicating more excellent thermal stability than untreated oil palm biomass. On the other hand, at a temperature above 350 °C, the pretreated biomass has less thermal stability. It has been demonstrated that a combination of low chemical concentration and physical pretreatments can disrupt the oil palm lignocellulose microstructure and potentially shorten the time required to achieve maximum hydrolysis efficiency. Furthermore, ultrasonication power of 300 W, frequency of 40 kHz, temperature of 80 °C, and time of 30 min in combination with low alkali-based pretreatment in oil palm residue will be helpful in applications requiring greater thermal stability