The Role of miRNAs as Key Regulators in the Neoplastic Microenvironment

The neoplastic microenvironment has been recognized to play a critical role in the development of cancer. Although a large body of evidence has established the importance of the cancer microenvironment, the manners of crosstalk between it and the cancer cells still remains unclear. Emerging mechanisms of communication include microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs are small noncoding RNA molecules that are involved in the posttranscriptional regulation of mRNA. Both intracellular and circulating miRNAs are differentially expressed in cancer and some of these alterations have been correlated with clinical patient outcomes. The role of miRNAs in the tumor microenvironment has only recently become a focus of research, however. In this paper, we discuss the influence of miRNAs on the tumor microenvironment as it relates to cancer progression. We conclude that miRNAs are a critical component in understanding invasion and metastasis of cancer cells

Limitations of Animal Models of Parkinson's Disease

Most cases of Parkinson's disease (PD) are sporadic. When choosing an animal model for idiopathic PD, one must consider the extent of similarity or divergence between the physiology, anatomy, behavior, and regulation of gene expression between humans and the animal. Rodents and nonhuman primates are used most frequently in PD research because when a Parkinsonian state is induced, they mimic many aspects of idiopathic PD. These models have been useful in our understanding of the etiology of the disease and provide a means for testing new treatments. However, the current animal models often fall short in replicating the true pathophysiology occurring in idiopathic PD, and thus results from animal models often do not translate to the clinic. In this paper we will explain the limitations of animal models of PD and why their use is inappropriate for the study of some aspects of PD

RNA metabolism is the primary target of formamide in vivo

The synthesis, processing and function of coding and non-coding RNA molecules and their interacting proteins has been the focus of a great deal of research that has boosted our understanding of key molecular pathways that underlie higher order events such as cell cycle control, development, innate immune response and the occurrence of genetic diseases. In this study, we have found that formamide preferentially weakens RNA related processes in vivo. Using a non-essential Schizosaccharomyces pombe gene deletion collection, we identify deleted loci that make cells sensitive to formamide. Sensitive deletions are significantly enriched in genes involved in RNA metabolism. Accordingly, we find that previously known temperature-sensitive splicing mutants become lethal in the presence of the drug under permissive temperature. Furthermore, in a wild type background, splicing efficiency is decreased and R-loop formation is increased in the presence of formamide. In addition, we have also isolated 35 formamide-sensitive mutants, many of which display remarkable morphology and cell cycle defects potentially unveiling new players in the regulation of these processes. We conclude that formamide preferentially targets RNA related processes in vivo, probably by relaxing RNA secondary structures and/or RNA-protein interactions, and can be used as an effective tool to characterize these processes

Regulation of Retention of FosB Intron 4 by PTB

One effect of stressors such as chronic drug administration is that sequence within the terminal exon of the transcription factor FosB is recognized as intronic and removed by alternative splicing. This results in an open-reading-frame shift that produces a translation stop codon and ultimately a truncated protein, termed ΔFosB. In vitro splicing assays with control and mutated transcripts generated from a fosB mini-gene construct indicated a CU-rich sequence at the 3′ end of intron 4 (I4) plays an important role in regulating fosB pre-mRNA splicing due to its binding of polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB). PTB binding to this sequence is dependent upon phosphorylation by protein kinase A and is blocked if the CU-rich sequence is mutated to a U-rich region. When this mutated fosB minigene is expressed in HeLa cells, the splicing efficiency of its product is increased compared to wild type. Moreover, transient transfection of PTB-1 in HeLa cells decreased the splicing efficiency of a wild type fosB minigene transcript. Depletion of PTB from nuclear extracts facilitated U2AF65 binding to wild type sequence in vitro, suggesting these proteins function in a dynamic equilibrium to modulate fosB pre-mRNA alternative splicing. These results demonstrate for the first time that phosphorylated PTB promotes intron retention and thereby silences the splicing of fosB I4

Impaired Inflammatory Responses in Murine Lrrk2-Knockdown Brain Microglia

LRRK2, a Parkinson's disease associated gene, is highly expressed in microglia in addition to neurons; however, its function in microglia has not been evaluated. Using Lrrk2 knockdown (Lrrk2-KD) murine microglia prepared by lentiviral-mediated transfer of Lrrk2-specific small inhibitory hairpin RNA (shRNA), we found that Lrrk2 deficiency attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mRNA and/or protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. LPS-induced phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and stimulation of NF-κB-responsive luciferase reporter activity was also decreased in Lrrk2-KD cells. Interestingly, the decrease in NF-κB transcriptional activity measured by luciferase assays appeared to reflect increased binding of the inhibitory NF-κB homodimer, p50/p50, to DNA. In LPS-responsive HEK293T cells, overexpression of the human LRRK2 pathologic, kinase-active mutant G2019S increased basal and LPS-induced levels of phosphorylated p38 and JNK, whereas wild-type and other pathologic (R1441C and G2385R) or artificial kinase-dead (D1994A) LRRK2 mutants either enhanced or did not change basal and LPS-induced p38 and JNK phosphorylation levels. However, wild-type LRRK2 and all LRRK2 mutant variants equally enhanced NF-κB transcriptional activity. Taken together, these results suggest that LRRK2 is a positive regulator of inflammation in murine microglia, and LRRK2 mutations may alter the microenvironment of the brain to favor neuroinflammation

Blood transcriptomics of drug-na\uefve sporadic Parkinson's disease patients

BACKGROUND: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is clinically defined in terms of motor symptoms. These are preceded by prodromal non-motor manifestations that prove the systemic nature of the disease. Identifying genes and pathways altered in living patients provide new information on the diagnosis and pathogenesis of sporadic PD. METHODS: Changes in gene expression in the blood of 40 sporadic PD patients and 20 healthy controls ("Discovery set") were analyzed by taking advantage of the Affymetrix platform. Patients were at the onset of motor symptoms and before initiating any pharmacological treatment. Data analysis was performed by applying Ranking-Principal Component Analysis, PUMA and Significance Analysis of Microarrays. Functional annotations were assigned using GO, DAVID, GSEA to unveil significant enriched biological processes in the differentially expressed genes. The expressions of selected genes were validated using RT-qPCR and samples from an independent cohort of 12 patients and controls ("Validation set"). RESULTS: Gene expression profiling of blood samples discriminates PD patients from healthy controls and identifies differentially expressed genes in blood. The majority of these are also present in dopaminergic neurons of the Substantia Nigra, the key site of neurodegeneration. Together with neuronal apoptosis, lymphocyte activation and mitochondrial dysfunction, already found in previous analysis of PD blood and post-mortem brains, we unveiled transcriptome changes enriched in biological terms related to epigenetic modifications including chromatin remodeling and methylation. Candidate transcripts as CBX5, TCF3, MAN1C1 and DOCK10 were validated by RT-qPCR. CONCLUSIONS: Our data support the use of blood transcriptomics to study neurodegenerative diseases. It identifies changes in crucial components of chromatin remodeling and methylation machineries as early events in sporadic PD suggesting epigenetics as target for therapeutic intervention

Multiple phosphorylated forms of the product of the fission yeast cell division cycle gene cdc2+

The 34 kilodalton protein product (p34) of the cdc2+ cell cycle control gene of Schizosaccharomyces pombe was expressed in bacteria. Monoclonal antibodies raised against this protein are capable of immunoprecipitating p34cdc2 from yeast lysates. Immunoprecipitates of [35S]methionine- and [32P]orthophosphate-labeled p34cdc2 were analyzed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. The cdc2+ gene product is homogeneous in size but resolves into seven species of differing charge. At least four of these species are phosphorylated. Phosphoamino acid analysis reveals that phosphorylation occurs mainly on threonine residues. The pattern of p34 phosphorylation is unaltered at the nonpermissive temperature in strains carrying temperature sensitive alleles of weel-50 and ran1-114 or in a strain overproducing the ran1+ gene product

Differential distribution of factors involved in pre-mRNA processing in the yeast cell nucleus.

The yeast cell nucleus has previously been shown to be divided into two regions by a variety of microscopic approaches. We used antibodies specific for the 2,2,7-trimethylguanosine cap structure of small nuclear ribonucleic acids (snRNAs) and for a protein component of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles to identify the distribution of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles within the yeast cell nucleus. These studies were performed with the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe and the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. By using immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy, most of the abundant snRNAs were localized to the portion of the nucleus which has heretofore been referred to as the nucleolus. This distribution of snRNAs is different from that found in mammalian cells and suggests that the nucleolar portion of the yeast nucleus contains functional domains in addition to those associated with RNA polymerase I activity