446 research outputs found
A bioüzemanyag-gyártás nemzetközi összefüggései
A drágulĂł olajár „felszĂnre hozta” a fosszilis energiahordozĂłk környezetbarát energiahordozĂłkkal valĂł kiváltásának problĂ©máját. Az olajkĂ©szletek korlátozottsága
mellett a bizonytalan kitermelés és a folyamatosan növekvő árak a bioüzemanyagok
felĂ© irányĂtják a politikai döntĂ©shozĂłk Ă©s a befektetĹ‘k figyelmĂ©t. Az olajimportĹ‘r
országoknak a bioüzemanyag-gyártás nyersanyagainak hazai termelése lehetővé
teszi importköltségeik visszafogását, az üvegházhatást okozó gázok kibocsátásának
csökkentĂ©sĂ©t, valamint a mezĹ‘gazdasági termelĹ‘k jövedelem-szĂnvonalának javĂtását.
A bioĂĽzemanyagok elterjedĂ©se ugyanakkor enyhĂti a kapacitása határán dolgozĂł
olajfinomĂtĂł ipar ĂĽzemanyag-ellátási terheit is, ami jelentĹ‘s mĂ©rtĂ©kben hozzájárul(t)
az üzemanyagárak emelkedéséhez.
Ma támogatás nélkül a bioüzemanyag-gyártás azonban csak technológiai innováció
hatására válhat gazdaságilag versenyképessé a fosszilis tüzelőanyagok mellett.
Így az olajfüggőség helyett, illetve mellett bioüzemanyag- vagy élelmiszerfüggőséget
idĂ©zhet elĹ‘ a bioĂĽzemanyag-előállĂtás Ă©sszerűtlen növelĂ©se. Annak ellenĂ©re,
hogy számos Ă©rv hangzik el a környezetvĂ©delemben Ă©s a biztonságosabb energiaellátásban betöltött szerepĂ©rĹ‘l, egyre világosabban láthatĂł az agrárpolitika szerepe. Ugyanis a takarmánytermelĂ©s már az utĂłbbi Ă©vtizedben sem tartott lĂ©pĂ©st a nĂ©pessĂ©g növekedĂ©sĂ©vel, ezĂ©rt már közĂ©ptávon is alternatĂv fehĂ©rjetakarmány Ă©s/vagy a
DDGS, napraforgó és repcedara felhasználásának maximalizálása szükséges. A második generációs, cellulózalapú technológia elterjedésével a bioüzemanyag-gyártás földrajzi kiterjesztése és a mezőgazdaság jövedelmezőségének javulása várható az érintett régiókban.
A bioĂĽzemanyagok felhasználásával megtakarĂtott ĂĽvegházhatásĂş gázok mennyisĂ©gĂ©rĹ‘l szĂłlĂł tanulmányok pozitĂv hatásrĂłl számolnak be. Ugyanez vonatkozik
az energiamérlegre is. A termelési költségek kalkulációja azt mutatja, hogy a bioüzemanyag
használata egyelőre nem tudja megfékezni a nyersolajárak növekedését,
ugyanis sokkal inkább a nyersolaj kiegĂ©szĂtĂ©sĂ©rĹ‘l, mintsem kiváltásárĂłl van szĂł. A kĂ©t legnagyobb globális bioĂĽzemanyag-piac ma az USA Ă©s BrazĂlia, a nemzetközi beruházások cĂ©lpontja pedig BrazĂlia Ă©s EurĂłpa. Az EU olajimport-fĂĽggĹ‘sĂ©ge aggodalomra ad okot, ráadásul a közlekedĂ©si ágazatra jut az olajfelhasználás 70%-a. Ugyanakkor az EU agrárpolitikája nem tartalmaz világos stratĂ©giát az Ă©ghajlatváltozáshoz valĂł alkalmazkodásra. 2020-ra tagállami szinten legalább 10%-ra kell növelni a fosszilis ĂĽzemanyagok biokomponens-tartalmát. A 10%-os rĂ©szarány teljesĂtĂ©sĂ©hez az Ă©vi belsĹ‘ gabona-felhasználás 19%-a Ă©s a repcetermelĂ©s teljes mennyisĂ©ge szĂĽksĂ©ges. A fosszilis ĂĽzemanyagok kiváltása a mai gabonatermelĂ©s legalább kĂ©tszeresĂ©t Ă©s a jelenlegi
repce- és napraforgó-termelés 25-szörösét igényelné. - Increasing oil prices have made the replacement of fossil fuel with environmental-friendly biofuel a hot topic. The limit of available oil resources and rising oil prices has drawn more and more attention to policy makers and investors. The production of feedstock for biofuel production in oil importing countries may reduce the cost of oil imports and greenhouse gas emissions and increase the income level of agricultural producers. At the same time, biofuel production may reduce the burden on fossil fuel production with overused capacities, which has led to increasing oil prices. Without government support, technological innovation is the only way biofuels can be made economically competitive with fossil fuels. By increasing biofuel production without careful consideration we run the risk of generating a dependence on biofuels or food in the place of the current dependence on oil. During the many discussions that have been held about the protection of the environment and the security of energy supply in terms of biofuels, the growing role of agricultural policy has become clear. Since animal compound feed production has been unable to keep pace with population growth during the last decade, reliance on alternative protein resources and/or maximising the use of DDGS, rape-meal and sunflower-meal in the production of animal feed will become a key issue in the medium-term. The motivation for cellulosic ethanol production is the geographical expansion of ethanol production, since ethanol will become cheaper if the distance between production and consumption is reduced, which will also improve the profitability of agriculture in the rural areas concerned. While there are significant differences in studies on the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions saved by the use of biofuels, on the whole biofuels are considered to have a positive impact on the environment. The same is true in terms of the net energy balance of biofuel production. Calculations of the production cost of biofuel indicate that the use of biofuel cannot control the price evolution of oil, because biofuels will remain supplemental rather than competitive products, to be blended into traditional fuels. The world’s two largest biofuel markets are the US and Brazil, while Brazil and Europe are the main beneficiaries of international investments. While the dependency of the EU on imported oil gives rise to serious concerns, transportation accounts for 70 per cent of oil consumption
in the EU. The agricultural policy of the EU does not have a clear-cut strategy for adaptation
to climate change. Member states are required to increase the biofuel share in fossil fuels to
at least 10 per cent by 2020. This 10 per cent share will require 19 per cent of the annual cereal consumption and the full rapeseed production. In order to fully substitute fossil fuels, the EU would require at least twice the current output of cereals and 25 times the current rapeseed and sunflower- seed production. Similarly to some other EU member states, Hungary has required a certain percentage of the fuels marketed on the national market to be biofuels in order to qualify for a preferential excise duty (differentiation in excise duty). The mandatory 10 per cent target for 2020 requires a maize area of 110-120 thousand hectares and approximately 300-350 thousand hectares of rapeseed and sunflowerseed. Once bioethanol and biodiesel are produced in high quantities, the supply of feedstock will become a top priority. The future of the Hungarian bioethanol industry raises questions concerning the potential sources and prices of feedstock
Az élelmiszerlánc szereplői közötti kapcsolatok hazánkban
Hazánkban a válság miatt a keresleti oldalrĂłl növekedni kĂ©ptelen piacon a kiskereskedelmi szereplĹ‘k a kötelezĹ‘ Ă©ves növekedĂ©st immár csak a piac Ăşjraosztásával Ă©rhetik el, ami a kiskereskedĹ‘k között kĂmĂ©letlen – horizontális – versenyt eredmĂ©nyez. Ennek eszköze az alapvetĹ‘ termĂ©kek esetĂ©ben a minĂ©l alacsonyabban tartott ár. EzĂ©rt a kereskedelmi láncok Ă©s beszállĂtĂłik kapcsolata vegyes kĂ©pet mutat. A nagy, tĹ‘keerĹ‘s, elsĹ‘sorban nemzetközi Ă©lelmiszer-feldolgozĂłk Ă©s mezĹ‘gazdasági beszállĂtĂłk számára mĂ©g Ăgy is jövedelmezĹ‘ lehet a kereskedelmi láncok által biztosĂtott szĂ©les körű piaci jelenlĂ©t. Ezzel szemben a hazai szinten nagy, de nem elĂ©g tĹ‘keerĹ‘s hazai beszállĂtĂłk alkupozĂciĂłja rendkĂvĂĽl kĂ©nyes, számukra mĂ©g vesztesĂ©g mellett is lĂ©tkĂ©rdĂ©s a kereskedelmi láncok nyĂşjtotta piaci jelenlĂ©t, mivel az alternatĂv Ă©rtĂ©kesĂtĂ©si csatornák egy rĂ©szĂ©hez tĂşl nagyok (fĂĽggetlen boltok), más rĂ©szĂ©hez pedig tĂşl kicsik (exportpiacok). Paradox mĂłdon tehát a hazai piaci viszonyok között az Ă©lelmiszer-gazdasági vállalkozások növekedĂ©se a közĂ©p-nagy vállalati határon komoly jövedelmezĹ‘sĂ©gi Ă©s Ă©rtĂ©kesĂtĂ©si gondokhoz vezet.
Az EU tagállamakĂ©nt Magyarországon a versenyjogot az uniĂłs Ă©s a harmonizált hazai versenyjogi szabályok jelentik. Az agrárszektor specialitásait ezzel szemben a közös Ă©s a nemzeti agrárpolitika jelenĂti meg, az ágazati szabályozás keretĂ©ben elsĹ‘bbsĂ©get biztosĂtva a versenyjogi szabályok alkalmazásával szemben. Az Ă©lelmiszer termĂ©kpálya teljes kizárása a versenyszabályok alkalmazása alĂłl azonban az uniĂłs tagállami kötelezettsĂ©geink felmondását jelenti, ezĂ©rt nem jogszerű megoldásrĂłl lenne szĂł. A piaci zavarok esetĂ©ben az állam piacbefolyásolĂł, árakat is Ă©rintĹ‘ ad hoc beavatkozásai nem kĂ©pesek a piaci folyamatokat tartĂłsan befolyásolni, sĹ‘t csökkentik a tartĂłs megoldások kialakulásának esĂ©lyĂ©t is (legfeljebb az indulatok csillapĂtására alkalmasak).
Joggal tehetĹ‘ fel akkor a kĂ©rdĂ©s, hogy a várhatĂłan továbbra is fennmaradĂł kĂmĂ©letlenversenyben lehet Ă©s Ă©rdemes-e a hazai Ă©lelmiszer-gazdaság erodálĂłdását, szelekciĂłját gátolni? VĂ©lemĂ©nyĂĽnk szerint mindenkĂ©ppen, de csak reális tisztánlátásra Ă©pĂĽlhetnek a hazai beszállĂtĂłk számára kĂ©tsĂ©gkĂvĂĽl kedvezĹ‘tlen piaci helyzet javĂtásának valĂłs Ă©s hatásos eszközei. A kĂ©szĂĽlĹ‘ Nemzeti VidĂ©k StratĂ©gia társadalmi vitája elĹ‘tt Ăgy kiemelkedĹ‘en fontosnak tartottuk, hogy az ellátási lánc szereplĹ‘i között felhalmozĂłdott feszĂĽltsĂ©gek okait számba vegyĂĽk, valamint a közigazgatás beavatkozási lehetĹ‘sĂ©geirĹ‘l kialakult tĂ©vhiteket eloszlassuk.
------------------------------- The food supply chain connects three important sectors – agriculture, the food processing industry and the distribution sectors. Key challenges identified for the food supply chain are the sub-optimal relationships between the stakeholders in the chain. Due to the large number of small and medium-sized companies, the food industry has an unequal bargaining power when compared to the highly concentrated retail sector. Even the largest food companies account for only 1-2% of a retailer’s business at national level, while a retailer may represent 20-30% of those companies’ businesses. The lack of market transparency, inequalities in bargaining power and anti-competitive practices have led to market distortions with negative effects on the competitiveness of the food supply chain as a whole. Asymmetry in bargaining power can lead to inefficiencies. Due to increased delays and asymmetry in price transmission, low comparability of retail prices, diversity of markets and actors along the chain, anticompetitive practices may potentially occur. As a result, food companies have a lower capacity to invest and innovate, and on the longer-term the economic welfare and choice of consumers is jeopardised. It important to exercise constant vigilance in order to identify and eliminate market distortions that have contributed to the observed asymmetries in price transmission along the food supply chain. While the food sector is in favour of strong competition, such unfair practices can only be solved be re-focusing the existing instruments of competition law. The issue of manifest unfair practices and the increasing buying power of retailers along the food chain has to be addressed. The rapid rise and fall of agricultural commodity prices and its delayed impact on food prices have raised concerns amongst stakeholders and policymakers about the functioning of the food supply chain. The European Commission has launched policy initiatives for the food supply chain in order to promote sustainable and market based relationships between stakeholders of the food supply chain and to increase transparency along the chain to spur competition and improve resilience to price volatility
The impact of crop protection on agricultural production
Chemical pesticides will continue to play a role in pest management for the future. In many situations, the benefits of pesticide use are high relative to the risks or there are no practical alternatives. The number and diversity of biological sources will increase, and products that originate in chemistry laboratories will be designed for particular target sites. Innovations in pesticide delivery systems in plants promise to reduce adverse environmental impacts even further. The correct use of pesticides can deliver significant socioeconomic and environmental benefits in the form of safe, healthy, affordable food; and enable sustainable farm management by improving the efficiency with which we use natural resources such as soil, water and overall land use. Genetically engineered organisms that reduce pest pressure constitute a “new generation” of pest management tools. The use of transgenic crops will probably maintain, or even increase, the need for effective resistance management programmes. However, there remains a need for new chemicals that are compatible with ecologically based pest management and applicator and worker safety. Evaluation of the effectiveness of biocontrol agents should involve consideration of long-term impacts rather than only short-term yield, as is typically done for conventional practices. But it makes sense to establish a legal framework that enables organic and pesticide-free markets to emerge and prosper so that consumers can be given an informed choice between lines of products that vary with pest management. The justifications of government intervention in the management of pest control include the need to address the externality problems associated with the human and environmental health effects of pesticides. There is underinvestment from a social perspective in private sector research because companies will compare their expected profits from their patented products resulting from research and will not consider the benefits to consumers and users. Another reason why public research might lead to innovations that elude the private sector is the different incentives that researchers in the private and public sectors face
Policy challenges for food, energy and environmental security
Limited land is available globally to grow crops for food and fuel. There are direct and indirect pressures on forests and other lands
to be converted from growing food for feedstock to be used for biofuel production. The balance of evidence indicates there will probably be
sufficient appropriate land available to meet demands for both food and fuel, but this needs to be confirmed before global supply of biofuel
is allowed to increase significantly. There is a future for a sustainable biofuels industry, but feedstock production must avoid encroaching on
agricultural land that would otherwise be used for food production. And while advanced technologies offer significant potential for higher
greenhouse gas (GHG) savings through biofuels, these will be offset if feedstock production uses existing agricultural land and prevents land-use
change. GHG savings can be achieved by using feedstock grown mainly on marginal land or that does not use land, such as wastes and residues.
To ensure that biofuels deliver net GHG benefits, governments should amend, but not abandon, their biofuel policies in recognition of the dangers
from indirect effects of land-use changes. Large areas of uncertainty remain in the overall impacts and benefits of biofuels. International action is
needed in order to improve data, models and controls, and to understand and to manage effects
How consistent is the new common agricultural policy with the challenges it faces?
The latest reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has recently been accepted,
identifying important challenges for EU agriculture, but proposing only limited changes to the
previous CAP. Now it is time for the implementation of the new measures. However, from a theoretical point of view, it seems that the CAP can hardly meet the challenges it faces due to the inconsistencies between the predefined challenges and the measures proposed to meet them. The
aim of the paper is to systematically analyse the consistency between the challenges of European
agriculture and the policy measures aimed at meeting them. It seems that not all measures are consistent with the challenges
Economics of GM crop cultivation
Asynchronous approval of new GM crops across international jurisdictions is of growing concern due to its potential impact on
global trade. Different countries have different authorisation procedures and, even if regulatory dossiers are submitted at the same time,
approval is not given simultaneously (in some cases, delays can even amount to years). For instance, by mid-2009 over 40 transgenic events
were approved or close to approval elsewhere but not yet approved – or not even submitted – in the EU. Yet, like some other jurisdictions, the
EU also operates a zero-tolerance policy to even the smallest traces of nationally unapproved GM crops (so-called low-level presence). The
resultant rejection of agricultural imports has already caused high economic losses and threatens to disrupt global agri-food supply chains.
The risk that feed supplies could be affected by a low-level presence of non-EU approved GM material could be resolved if the EU allowed
a tolerance for this, rather than operating a strict zero tolerance as now. The Commission has undertaken to come forward with a nonlegislative
technical solution to address the difficulties created by a strict zero tolerance policy. To what extent this would be helpful will
depend on the nature of the proposed solution
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