An Analysis of Eminent Domain and the Supreme Court

In light of a 2005 landmark decision that redefined what eminent domain is, this paper aims at analyzing the historical relationship between eminent domain cases and the Supreme Court while also discussing future implications of cases to come.Ope

Exposure to alcohol outlets, alcohol access, and alcohol consumption among adolescents

Background: Adolescents who live near more alcohol outlets tend to consume more alcohol, despite laws prohibiting alcohol purchases for people aged <21 years. We examined relationships between adolescents' exposure to alcohol outlets, the sources through which they access alcohol, and their alcohol consumption. Methods: Participants for this longitudinal study (n = 168) were aged 15-18 years and were from 10 cities in the San Francisco Bay Area. We collected survey data to measure participant characteristics, followed by 1 month of GPS tracking to measure exposure to alcohol outlets (separated into exposures near home and away from home for bars, restaurants, and off-premise outlets). A follow-up survey approximately 1 year later measured alcohol access (through outlets, family members, peers aged <21 years, peers aged ≥21 years) and alcohol consumption (e.g. count of drinking days in last 30). Generalized structural equation models related exposure to alcohol outlets, alcohol access, and alcohol consumption. Results: Exposure to bars and off-premise outlets near home was positively associated with accessing alcohol from peers aged <21, and in turn, accessing alcohol from peers aged <21 was positively associated with alcohol consumption. There was no direct association between exposure to alcohol outlets near home or away from home and alcohol consumption. Conclusions: Interventions that reduce adolescents' access through peers aged <21 may reduce adolescents' alcohol consumption

Assessing Individuals’ Exposure to Environmental Conditions Using Residence-Based Measures, Activity Location-Based Measures, and Activity Path-Based Measures

Background: Many approaches are available to researchers who wish to measure individuals' exposure to environmental conditions. Different approaches may yield different estimates of associations with health outcomes. Taking adolescents' exposure to alcohol outlets as an example, we aimed to (1) compare exposure measures and (2) assess whether exposure measures were differentially associated with alcohol consumption. Methods: We tracked 231 adolescents 14-16 years of age from the San Francisco Bay Area for 4 weeks in 2015/2016 using global positioning systems (GPS). Participants were texted ecologic momentary assessment surveys six times per week, including assessment of alcohol consumption. We used GPS data to calculate exposure to alcohol outlets using three approach types: residence-based (e.g., within the home census tract), activity location-based (e.g., within buffer distances of frequently attended places), and activity path-based (e.g., average outlets per hour within buffer distances of GPS route lines). Spearman correlations compared exposure measures, and separate Tobit models assessed associations with the proportion of ecologic momentary assessment responses positive for alcohol consumption. Results: Measures were mostly strongly correlated within approach types (ρ ≥ 0.7), but weakly (ρ < 0.3) to moderately (0.3 ≤ ρ < 0.7) correlated between approach types. Associations with alcohol consumption were mostly inconsistent within and between approach types. Some of the residence-based measures (e.g., census tract: β = 8.3, 95% CI = 2.8, 13.8), none of the activity location-based approaches, and most of the activity path-based approaches (e.g., outlet-hours per hour, 100 m buffer: β = 8.3, 95% CI = 3.3, 13.3) were associated with alcohol consumption. Conclusions: Methodologic decisions regarding measurement of exposure to environmental conditions may affect study results

The economic geography of medical cannabis dispensaries in California

BACKGROUND: The introduction of laws that permit the use of marijuana for medical purposes has led to the emergence of a medical marijuana industry in some US states. This study assessed the spatial distribution of medical marijuana dispensaries according to estimated marijuana demand, socioeconomic indicators, alcohol outlets and other socio-demographic factors. METHOD: Telephone survey data from 5,940 residents of 39 California cities were used to estimate social and demographic correlates of marijuana demand. These individual-level estimates were then used to calculate aggregate marijuana demand (i.e. market potential) for 7,538 census block groups. Locations of actively operating marijuana dispensaries were then related to the measure of demand and the socio-demographic characteristics of census block groups using multilevel Bayesian conditional autoregressive logit models. RESULTS: Marijuana dispensaries were located in block groups with greater marijuana demand, higher rates of poverty, alcohol outlets, and in areas just outside city boundaries. For the sampled block groups, a 10% increase in demand within a block group was associated with 2.4% greater likelihood of having a dispensary, and a 10% increase in the city-wide demand was associated with a 6.7% greater likelihood of having a dispensary. CONCLUSION: High demand for marijuana within individual block groups and within cities is related to the location of marijuana dispensaries at a block-group level. The relationship to low income, alcohol outlets and unincorporated areas indicates that dispensaries may open in areas that lack the resources to resist their establishment

Spatial relationships between alcohol-related road crashes and retail alcohol availability

BACKGROUND: This study examines spatial relationships between alcohol outlet density and the incidence of alcohol-related crashes. The few prior studies conducted in this area used relatively large spatial units; here we use highly resolved units from Melbourne, Australia (Statistical Area level 1 [SA1] units: mean land area = 0.5 km(2); SD = 2.2 km(2)), in order to assess different micro-scale spatial relationships for on- and off-premise outlets. METHODS: Bayesian conditional autoregressive Poisson models were used to assess cross-sectional relationships of three-year counts of alcohol-related crashes (2010 to 2012) attended by Ambulance Victoria paramedics to densities of bars, restaurants, and off-premise outlets controlling for other land use, demographic and roadway characteristics. RESULTS: Alcohol-related crashes were not related to bar density within local SA1 units, but were positively related to bar density in adjacent SA1 units. Alcohol-related crashes were negatively related to off-premise outlet density in local SA1 units. CONCLUSIONS: Examined in one metropolitan area using small spatial units, bar density is related to greater crash risk in surrounding areas. Observed negative relationships for off-premise outlets may be because the origins and destinations of alcohol-affected journeys are in distal locations relative to outlets

Exposure to alcohol outlets, alcohol access, and alcohol consumption among adolescents

Background: Adolescents who live near more alcohol outlets tend to consume more alcohol, despite laws prohibiting alcohol purchases for people aged <21 years. We examined relationships between adolescents' exposure to alcohol outlets, the sources through which they access alcohol, and their alcohol consumption. Methods: Participants for this longitudinal study (n = 168) were aged 15-18 years and were from 10 cities in the San Francisco Bay Area. We collected survey data to measure participant characteristics, followed by 1 month of GPS tracking to measure exposure to alcohol outlets (separated into exposures near home and away from home for bars, restaurants, and off-premise outlets). A follow-up survey approximately 1 year later measured alcohol access (through outlets, family members, peers aged <21 years, peers aged ≥21 years) and alcohol consumption (e.g. count of drinking days in last 30). Generalized structural equation models related exposure to alcohol outlets, alcohol access, and alcohol consumption. Results: Exposure to bars and off-premise outlets near home was positively associated with accessing alcohol from peers aged <21, and in turn, accessing alcohol from peers aged <21 was positively associated with alcohol consumption. There was no direct association between exposure to alcohol outlets near home or away from home and alcohol consumption. Conclusions: Interventions that reduce adolescents' access through peers aged <21 may reduce adolescents' alcohol consumption

Impacts of confounding roadway characteristics on estimates of associations between alcohol outlet densities and alcohol‐related motor vehicle crashes

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Previous research on alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes (AMVC) share a substantial limitation: sources of geographic variations in background crash risks may confound estimated spatial relationships between alcohol outlets and AMVCs. The aim of this study was to address this concern by examining, spatial-temporally, relationships between alcohol outlets and AMVCs adjusting for a set of six roadway characteristics that may be, independently, related to crash risks. While most similar studies focus on one metropolitan area, we use a unique sample of 50 cities. DESIGN AND METHODS: The spatial sample for this study consisted of 8726 Census 2000 block groups representing 50 mid-sized California cities. Dependent measures were counts of crashes located within Census block groups. Independent measures included socio-demographics, social disadvantage, alcohol outlets and roadway characteristics. We assessed relationships of crashes to independent measures using hierarchical generalised linear models. RESULTS: Greater roadway length, greater percentage of highways, greater average speeds, fewer T-intersections, greater curviness and less fragmentation were related to greater numbers of crashes as was alcohol outlet density. DISCUSSION: Above and beyond alcohol outlet type and density, we found that roadway characteristics were related to AMVC risks across a sample of 50 mid-sized cities. Measures of roadway characteristics are an essential component of any model of motor vehicle crashes that attempts to assess impacts of alcohol outlets on motor vehicle crashes risks