Thérapie génique de la dystrophie musculaire de duchenne : utilisation de transgènes de la dystrophine chez le modèle canin

La dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne (DMD) est une maladie génétique qui touche environ 1 garçon sur 3500. Cette pathologie liée au chromosome X est caractérisée par l’absence de dystrophine au niveau des muscles. Ce manque de dystrophine fragilise le sarcolemme des fibres musculaires menant à une faiblesse progressive du muscle. Les patients décèdent généralement dans la vingtaine et il n’y a pas à l’heure actuelle de traitement curatif pour cette maladie. Une approche pour restaurer la dystrophine chez le patient DMD est d’introduire un transgène codant pour cette protéine dans ses muscles. Cela peut être fait par thérapie génique et particulièrement par la thérapie génique ex vivo et l’électroporation. Bien que ces deux techniques aient fait leurs preuves dans différents modèles animaux, elles n’ont jamais été utilisées chez le chien dystrophique alors que c’est le modèle le plus proche de la DMD en termes de phénotype. Deux versions de la dystrophine de chien ont été utilisées dans nos expériences : une version pleine longueur et une autre plus petite afin qu’elle puisse être incluse dans un lentivirus. La transplantation de myoblastes génétiquement modifiés par ce lentivirus (thérapie génique ex vivo) nous a permis d’obtenir l’expression de micro-dystrophine dans les muscles des souris immunodéficientes greffés. Néanmoins, l’autotransplantation de myoblastes de chien génétiquement modifiés a mené à un rejet spécifique des cellules greffées. L’électroporation, c.-à-d. l’injection de plasmide suivie d’un choc électrique, a également été utilisée pour introduire ce transgène ainsi que celui de la dystrophine pleine longueur dans des muscles de souris et de chien. Ces deux transgènes furent retrouvés avec succès chez la souris et le chien. Cependant, des infiltrations de cellules de l’immunité spécifique furent retrouvées au niveau des fibres exprimant le transgène chez le chien (pour l’utilisation de micro-dystrophine) et chez le chien dystrophique (pour la dystrophine pleine longueur). Bien que les résultats obtenus avec la thérapie génique ex vivo et l’électroporation soient très bons chez la souris, ceux obtenus chez le chien sont plus modérés. Il reste donc encore beaucoup d’améliorations à apporter à ces deux méthodes avant qu’elles puissent être utilisées comme approche thérapeutique dans le cadre de la DMD.Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease affecting 1 out of every 3500 boys. This X-linked pathology is characterised by the absence of dystrophin in myofibers. This lack of dystrophin leads to a progressive muscular degeneration. DMD patients die between 17 and 30 years of age. There are currently no curative treatments for this disease. An approach to restore dystrophin in DMD patients is to introduce a transgene coding for this protein into their muscles. This can be done by gene therapy, particularly by ex vivo gene therapy or by electroporation. Even if these 2 techniques have shown good results in mouse models, they have not been used in the dystrophic dog. Two different isoforms of the dystrophin were used in our experiments: the full length dog dystrophin and a shorter version, the dog micro-dystrophin, introduced in a lentivirus backbone. Myoblasts were transduced with this lentivirus and transplanted successfully in immunodeficient mouse. However, the autotransplantation of genetically modified dog myoblasts led to a specific rejection of the grafted cells. A non viral gene therapy (electroporation, i.e., injection of a plasmid followed by a sequence of electric pulses) was used to introduce these two different isoforms of dystrophin in mouse and (normal and dystrophic) dog muscles. The two transgenes were electroporated with success in these muscles. However, a specific immune response was found in some myofibers expressing the transgene in the normal dog (using micro-dystrophin) and in the dystrophic dog (using full length dystrophin). Although the results obtained with the ex vivo gene therapy and with the electroporation were relatively effective in the mouse model, those obtained with the dog model were much lower. Thus, lots of improvements remain to be made in order to consider these two techniques as potential approaches to restore dystrophin in a large animal model and eventually in DMD patients

Current Status of Pharmaceutical and Genetic Therapeutic Approaches to Treat DMD

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a genetic disease affecting about one in every 3,500 boys. This X-linked pathology is due to the absence of dystrophin in muscle fibers. This lack of dystrophin leads to the progressive muscle degeneration that is often responsible for the death of the DMD patients during the third decade of their life. There are currently no curative treatments for this disease but different therapeutic approaches are being studied. Gene therapy consists of introducing a transgene coding for full-length or a truncated version of dystrophin complementary DNA (cDNA) in muscles, whereas pharmaceutical therapy includes the use of chemical/biochemical substances to restore dystrophin expression or alleviate the DMD phenotype. Over the past years, many potential drugs were explored. This led to several clinical trials for gentamicin and ataluren (PTC124) allowing stop codon read-through. An alternative approach is to induce the expression of an internally deleted, partially functional dystrophin protein through exon skipping. The vectors and the methods used in gene therapy have been continually improving in order to obtain greater encapsidation capacity and better transduction efficiency. The most promising experimental approaches using pharmaceutical and gene therapies are reviewed in this article

Comprehensive genetic dissection of wood properties in a widely-grown tropical tree: Eucalyptus

Background: Eucalyptus is an important genus in industrial plantations throughout the world and is grown for use as timber, pulp, paper and charcoal. Several breeding programmes have been launched worldwide to concomitantly improve growth performance and wood properties (WPs). In this study, an interspecific cross between Eucalyptus urophylla and E. grandis was used to identify major genomic regions (Quantitative Trait Loci, QTL) controlling the variability of WPs. Results: Linkage maps were generated for both parent species. A total of 117 QTLs were detected for a series of wood and end-use related traits, including chemical, technological, physical, mechanical and anatomical properties. The QTLs were mainly clustered into five linkage groups. In terms of distribution of QTL effects, our result agrees with the typical L-shape reported in most QTL studies, i.e. most WP QTLs had limited effects and only a few (13) had major effects (phenotypic variance explained > 15%). The co-locations of QTLs for different WPs as well as QTLs and candidate genes are discussed in terms of phenotypic correlations between traits, and of the function of the candidate genes. The major wood property QTL harbours a gene encoding a Cinnamoyl CoA reductase (CCR), a structural enzyme of the monolignol-specific biosynthesis pathway. Conclusions: Given the number of traits analysed, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the genetic architecture of wood properties in this Eucalyptus full-sib pedigree. At the dawn of Eucalyptus genome sequence, it will provide a framework to identify the nature of genes underlying these important quantitative traits. (Résumé d'auteur

Intramuscular Transplantation of Muscle Precursor Cells over-expressing MMP-9 improves Transplantation Success

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by the absence of dystrophin in muscles. A therapeutic approach to restore dystrophin expression in DMD patient’s muscles is the transplantation of muscle precursor cells (MPCs). However, this transplantation is limited by the low MPC capacity to migrate beyond the injection trajectory. Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) are key regulatory molecules in the remodeling of extracellular matrix (ECM) components. MPCs over-expressing MMP-9 were tested by zymography, migration and invasion assays in vitro and by transplantation in mouse muscle. In vitro, MPCs over-expressing MMP-9 have a better invasion capacity than control MPCs. When these cells are transplanted in mouse muscles, the transplantation success is increased by more than 50% and their dispersion is higher than normal cells. MMP-9 over-expression could thus be an approach to improve cell transplantation in DMD patients by increasing the dispersion capacity of transplanted cells

Additional file 3: Figure S3. of Decrease of myofiber branching via muscle-specific expression of the olfactory receptor mOR23 in dystrophic muscle leads to protection against mechanical stress

Myofiber branching is also decreased in mOR23 transgenic mouse line 2 after muscle regeneration. (A) The percentage of regenerated myofibers in gastrocnemius muscles was not significantly different in WT and TG2 mice 3 weeks after muscle injury but TG2 muscles had significantly fewer branched regenerated myofibers than WT muscles (B). (C) The number of branches per branched myofiber was not significantly decreased in injured TG muscles compared to WT muscles (chi-square = 2.51, df = 3). n = 108–196 myofibers isolated per genotype and mouse. Data are mean ± SEM and n = 4 mice for each genotype with *p < 0.05

DNA-Mediated Gene Therapy in a Mouse Model of Limb Girdle Muscular Dystrophy 2B

Mutations in the gene for dysferlin cause a degenerative disorder of skeletal muscle known as limb girdle muscular dystrophy 2B. To achieve gene delivery of plasmids encoding dysferlin to hind limb muscles of dysferlin knockout mice, we used a vascular injection method that perfused naked plasmid DNA into all major muscle groups of the hind limb. We monitored delivery by luciferase live imaging and western blot, confirming strong dysferlin expression that persisted over the 3-month time course of the experiment. Co-delivery of the follistatin gene, which may promote muscle growth, was monitored by ELISA. Immunohistochemistry documented the presence of dysferlin in muscle fibers in treated limbs, and PCR confirmed the presence of plasmid DNA. Because dysferlin is involved in repair of the sarcolemmal membrane, dysferlin loss leads to fragile sarcolemmal membranes that can be detected by permeability to Evan’s blue dye. We showed that after gene therapy with a plasmid encoding both dysferlin and follistatin, statistically significant reduction in Evan’s blue dye permeability was present in hamstring muscles. These results suggest that vascular delivery of plasmids carrying these therapeutic genes may lead to simple and effective approaches for improving the clinical condition of limb girdle muscular dystrophy 2B

Activation of the MAPKs ERK1/2 by cell swelling in turbot hepatocytes.

International audienceBACKGROUND INFORMATION: Activation of MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases), in particular ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2), has been reported to take place in a large variety of cell types after hypo-osmotic cell swelling. Depending on cell type, ERK1/2 phosphorylation can then serve or not the RVD (regulatory volume decrease) process. The present study investigates ERK1/2 activation after aniso-osmotic stimulations in turbot hepatocytes and the potential link between phosphorylation of these proteins and RVD. RESULTS: In turbot hepatocytes, Western-blot analysis shows that a hypo-osmotic shock from 320 to 240 mOsm kg(-1) induced a rapid increase in ERK1/2 phosphorylation, whereas a hyper-osmotic shock from 320 to 400 mOsm kg(-1) induced no significant change in the phosphorylation of these proteins. The hypo-osmotic-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation was significantly prevented when hypo-osmotic shock was performed in the presence of the specific MEK (MAPK/ERK kinase) inhibitor PD98059 (100 microM). In these conditions, the RVD process was not altered, suggesting that ERK1/2 did not participate in this process in turbot hepatocytes. Moreover, the hypo-osmotic-induced activation of ERK1/2 was significantly prevented by breakdown of extracellular ATP by apyrase (10 units ml(-1)), by inhibition of purinergic P2 receptors by suramin (100 microM) or by calcium depletion using EGTA (1 mM) and thapsigargin (1 microM). CONCLUSIONS: In turbot hepatocytes, hypo-osmotic swelling but not hyper-osmotic shrinkage induced the activation of ERK1/2. However, these proteins do not seem to be involved in the RVD process. Their hypo-osmotic-induced activation is partially due to cascades of signalling events triggered by the binding of released ATP on purinergic P2 receptors and requires the presence of calcium

Expression of Dog Microdystrophin in Mouse and Dog Muscles by Gene Therapy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is characterized by the absence of dystrophin. Several previous studies demonstrated the feasibility of delivering microdystrophin complementary DNA (cDNA) into mouse and normal nonhuman primate muscles by ex vivo gene therapy. However, these animal models do not reproduce completely the human DMD phenotype, while the dystrophic dog model does. To progress toward the use of the best animal model of DMD, a dog microdystrophin was transduced into human and dystrophic dog muscle precursor cells (MPCs) with a lentivirus before their transplantation into mouse muscles. One month following MPC transplantation, myofibers expressing the dog microdystrophin were observed. We also used another approach to introduce this transgene into myofibers, i.e., the electrotransfer of a plasmid coding for the dog microdystrophin. The plasmid was injected into mouse and dog muscles, and brief electric pulses were applied in the region of injection. Two weeks later, the transgene was detected in both animals. Therefore, ex vivo gene therapy and electrotransfer are two possible methods to introduce a truncated version of dystrophin into myofibers of animal models and eventually into myofibers of DMD patients