375 research outputs found

    Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus as Food- and Waterborne Pathogens-Transmission Routes and Methods for Detection in Food

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    Foodborne viruses are an important threat to food safety and public health. Globally, there are approximately 5 million cases of acute viral hepatitis due to hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) every year. HAV is responsible for numerous food-related viral outbreaks worldwide, while HEV is an emerging pathogen with a global health burden. The reported HEV cases in Europe have increased tenfold in the last 20 years due to its zoonotic transmission through the consumption of infected meat or meat products. HEV is considered the most common cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide currently. This review focuses on the latest findings on the foodborne transmission routes of HAV and HEV and the methods for their detection in different food matrices

    Molecular characterization of a murine norovirus isolate from Sweden and detection of noroviruses in artificially contaminated raspberries

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    Frozen, imported raspberries have been linked to several outbreaks of human norovirus (NoV) gastroenteritis in Sweden. Noroviruses are highly infectious and are often presented in low numbers in contaminated foods. Detection with RT-PCR must therefore be preceded by a method that extract and concentrate viruses from the tested food samples, but most available methods are laborious and/or inefficient. Studies on noroviruses are further complicated by the fact that human noroviruses are unable to grow in routinely used cell culture models. The murine norovirus (MNV), a common pathogen of immunocompromised mice, can be cultivated in macrophage-like cells and is often used as a model for studies on human noroviruses. In the present study, a previously unidentified MNV isolate from Sweden was sequenced and molecularly characterized. This isolate also served as a surrogate for testing and further developing a method to concentrate noroviruses from raspberries. Pathatrix (Life Technologies) is an automated magnet separation system that allows concentration of viruses or bacteria from large sample volumes. This system was tested together with cationic paramagnetic beads that attract the negatively charged surface of NoV particles. Results from this study shows that few modifications of the Pathatrix protocol might enhance viral recovery. For further evaluation, the Pathatrix method was compared with polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation for concentrating MNV, NoV GI, and GII from artificially contaminated raspberries. PEG precipitation was clearly more efficient but displayed a high degree of inhibition in RT-PCR. Altogether, this study shows that the Pathatrix method is a convenient and quick alternative. However, it needs to be further optimized before it can be used to concentrate noroviruses from raspberries

    An investigation into the effectiveness of facial morphing in reducing uv exposure among women and men aged 35 years and older

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    Background: Non-melanoma skin cancer, which is often caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, is a growing problem among men and women globally. Interventions highlighting the negative appearance-related consequences of UV exposure appear to be effective in changing behaviour and attitudes relating to UV exposure. Facial morphing is an appearance-related intervention (demonstrating future hypothetical ageing to the face) that has been shown to reduce long-term levels of UV exposure among those younger than 35 years; however, its effectiveness has not been tested with older age groups. Aim: To investigate how those aged 35 years and older react to a facial morphing intervention, and to examine how effective this type of intervention can be in reducing UV exposure long-term, as compared to a health-focused intervention. Method: A mixed-methods approach was used, comprising a systematic review and meta-analysis into the effectiveness of appearance-focused interventions to reduce UV exposure; two qualitative studies examining attitudes to UV exposure and a facial morphing intervention among men and women aged 35 years and older; and a small-scale experimental study assessing the long-term effectiveness of facial morphing in reducing UV exposure in this age group, as compared to a healthfocused intervention. Results: Appearance-focused interventions were associated with a small but positive effect in reducing UV exposure. Qualitative findings indicated that facial morphing increased motivations to reduce UV exposure among both men and women, but the quantitative findings did not find significant improvements in sun protection. However, when facial morphing was combined with implementation intentions, results revealed increased intentions to use sun protection among those who considered proximal consequences more important than distal consequences. Conclusion: This PhD has concluded that facial morphing may need to be adapted to be effective with older age groups, and that implementation intentions may be a useful addition to this type of intervention. The current project has identified a number of relevant moderators that should be further examined in future research

    OmrÄdesbaserad risk- och sÄrbarhetsanalys för beslutsfattande inom operativ krishantering

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    During the past decades, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been developed as a tool for managing spatial data. Under the right conditions, GIS can be a useful tool in the field of crisis management where private and public actors need to manage extensive flows of information. This master thesis aims to study how GIS is used in different parts of the risk and vulnerability analysis process. Specifically, the use of GIS and maps as support for decision making in operational crisis management is studied. The project also aims to study the prerequisites for the implementation and use of GIS in an organization for this purpose. The results partly show that technical challenges related to hard- and software are relatively simple to solve in comparison to those that are related to the organization and the staff.Det Àr den bittra sanningen att under en kris gÄr inte allt att rÀdda. GrundlÀggande vÀrden konkurrerar mot varandra om vÄr uppmÀrksamhet i en kamp dÀr det mest samhÀllsviktiga ska rÀddas först. Men hur ska en beslutsfattare kunna avgöra vem eller vad som ska prioriteras i ett tidspressat och kaotiskt tillstÄnd? Kan en digital karta vara den vÀgvisare som skapar den överblick som krÀvs för att pÄ ett korrekt sÀtt hantera en kris? Kartan Àr ett givet hjÀlpmedel för att överblicka vÄr omgivning. De utvecklas hela tiden och Àr idag lÄngt mer avancerade Àn de grottmÄlningar som utgör starten för kartografin, dvs. lÀran om att framstÀlla kartor. Under de senaste decennierna har Geografiska Informationssystem (GIS) utvecklats som ett verktyg för att hantera data som har en geografisk position. I GIS kan data lÀggas ovanpÄ data i olika tematiska lager dÀr ett lager t.ex. kan innehÄlla information om vÀgar, fastigheter eller befolkningstÀthet. Olika kombinationer av lager kan fungera som lÀttförstÄeliga och anvÀndbara material för att överblicka en kris och planera insatserna. Under rÀtt förutsÀttningar kan GIS dÀrmed vara ett viktigt hjÀlpmedel i krishanteringssammanhang. I samband med skogsbrÀnderna i VÀstmanland togs en kartor fram med hjÀlp av GIS. Genom ett samarbete mellan Myndigheten för SamhÀllsskydd och Beredskap, LÀnsstyrelsen i VÀstmanland och GIS-företaget ESRI togs kartor fram över brandens utspridning och avstÀngda omrÄden. Kartorna var till stor hjÀlp för allmÀnheten samt de som deltog i slÀckningsarbetet. Just lÀttförstÄelighet Àr nÄgot som en bild ofta kan bidra med. I jÀmförelse med t.ex. en text sÄ kan olika typer av visualisering förhöja vÄr kognitionsförmÄga. Det beror pÄ att en del av vÄra hjÀrnceller Àr sÀrskilt tillÀgnade visuell perception och igenkÀnning av mönster. Detta gör bilden och kartan till ett viktigt medium för att t.ex. kommunicera risker. HÀr har dock kartografen ett stort ansvar. Precis som att politiska partier kan presentera statistik som gynnar partiet sÄ kan kartografer genom val av dataunderlag och grafik förmedla ett visst budskap. De extraordinÀra omstÀndigheter som karaktÀriserar en kris innebÀr att ett kartstöd i hanteringen av krisen mÄste vara vÀl genomtÀnkt. DÀrför genomfördes en studie för att kartlÀgga erfarenheter av GIS i operativ krishantering. Intervjuer med den offentliga sektorn visar att krishanterarna och beslutsfattarna stÀller höga krav pÄ att kartstödet ska vara intuitivt, enkelt och lÀttmanövrerat. Det kommer inte av sig sjÀlvt utan organisationen mÄste tÀnka igenom utformningen och implementeringen av GIS- och kartstödet. Investeringen krÀver engagemang och resurser som strÀcker sig bortom inköp av datorer och programvara. Ett fungerande GIS-stöd Àr t.ex. Àven beroende av att relevant kompetens knyts till organisationen för att förvalta databaserna och anpassa systemet efter verksamheten och de anstÀllda. Dessutom mÄste anvÀndarna identifieras, engageras och utbildas sÄ att kartstödet kan bli en del av deras dagliga arbetsuppgifter. Det visar sig att de intervjuade organisationerna anser det vara sÄrbart att vara beroende av ett fÄtal anstÀllda för att ta fram relevanta kartstöd. Vissa geografiska analyser kan vÀnta tills en GIS-kunnig kan ta sig an dem men sÄ Àr inte fallet i en krissituation. Finns ingen GIS-expert pÄ plats sÄ mÄste helt enkelt nÄgon annan genomföra uppgiften. Ovana och okunnighet kan dÄ kosta viktiga minuter. Den digitala kartan Àr idag lika given i en krissituation som bandage och radioapparater. Men vilken roll spelar GIS om nÄgra Är? Det Àr lÀtt att inspireras av visionerna som framförs under studiens intervjuer samt de internationella exempel som beskrivs i litteraturen. Framtidssynerna hintar om att interaktiva kartor kommer dyka upp i vÄra sociala medier. PÄ sÄ sÀtt kan allmÀnheten lÀtt ta del av risk- och krisrelaterad information och samtidigt dela med sig av sina iakttagelser. Efter de omfattande skyfallen i Malmö 2014 publicerade Sydsvenskan en interaktiv karta för att dela denna typ av information. Genom inrapporteringar frÄn allmÀnheten kunde krishanterarna och stadens invÄnare fÄ en överblick över situationen i staden. För att hantera en kris mÄste beslutsfattarna ta riskinformerade beslut. Det visar sig att under rÀtt förutsÀttningar kan en karta visa vÀgen genom den djungel av risker och sÄrbarheter som pÄverkar krisen

    De oskyldiga barnen - beaktas barns rÀttigheter nÀr en förÀlder frihetsberövas?

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    Syftet med denna uppsats Ă€r att undersöka hur barns rĂ€ttigheter tillvaratas dĂ„ en förĂ€lder hĂ€ktas. Vem beaktar egentligen barns behov dĂ„ en förĂ€lder rycks bort? FrĂ„gan Ă€r pĂ„ intet sĂ€tt ny men likvĂ€l höljd i dunkel. Enligt gĂ€llande rĂ€tt har alla barn rĂ€tt till sina förĂ€ldrar. De har en rĂ€tt att upprĂ€tthĂ„lla en nĂ€ra och god kontakt sĂ„vida det inte strider mot barnets bĂ€sta. Barn som har förĂ€ldrar vilka Ă€r hĂ€ktade lever emellertid i en svĂ„r situation. För dem styr samhĂ€llet nĂ€r, om och hur kontakt ska ske. Att bli berövad en förĂ€lder pĂ„ grund av ett frihetsberövande skapar en kĂ€nslomĂ€ssig kris för barnet, ett trauma. Den psykiska smĂ€rtan kan vara djup och ta sig uttryck pĂ„ flera olika sĂ€tt men symptom som aggressivitet, koncentrationssvĂ„righeter och stress Ă€r vanliga. Det hĂ€nder Ă€ven att ett barn förestĂ€ller sig ett hĂ€kte som pĂ„ film, ett rum med kala vĂ€ggar och med ingenting i. Oavsett vad förĂ€ldern har gjort Ă€r det ett barns mamma eller pappa som sitter i hĂ€ktescellen och frihetsberövandet förorsakar en mĂ€ngd frĂ„gor barnet behöver och vill ha svar pĂ„. Barnet mĂ„ste dĂ€rför ges en möjlighet att fĂ„ trĂ€ffa och se sin förĂ€lder, att fĂ„ se att han eller hon lever och mĂ„r bra. Att fĂ„ komma pĂ„ besök Ă€r avgörande för sĂ„vĂ€l barnets vĂ€lmĂ„ende som för barnets förmĂ„ga att hantera sin livssituation. SamhĂ€llet brister dessvĂ€rre i denna hĂ€nsyn och detta trots att det inte Ă€r meningen att de oskyldiga barnen ska bestraffas för förĂ€lderns eventuella kriminalitet. Barns rĂ€ttigheter kan beaktas i högre grad Ă€n vad som görs idag och sĂ„ borde ocksĂ„ ske.The purpose of this essay is to analyse how society pays attention to children’s rights and needs whose parents are imprisoned. Who takes into account children’s needs when a parent is taken away? The topic is by no means a new phenomenon but it is slightly raised in obscurity. According to existing law, a child has the right to both parents. Children has the right to maintain a close and healthy contact with both parents on a regular basis as long as it does not interfere with the best interest of the child. Children whose parents are detained however, are stuck in a difficult situation. For these children, society regulates when, if and how the contact should take place. To be deprived of a parent will create an emotional trauma for the child. The physical pain can be hard and can come to show in different ways. Symptoms such as aggression, lack of concentration and stress are common. It also happens that the child imagines a detention as seen in movies, like a room with bare walls and nothing else. Regardless of the reasons, it is still someone’s mom or dad who is detained. The detention raises a lot of questions the child wants and needs answers to. It is therefore essential that the child is given opportunities to meet the parent, to ensure that he or she is coping and doing well. Visits are crucial for a child’s well-being and ability to handle the situation. Unfortunately, society has not been successful in this regard even though a child should not be punished for a parent’s potential crime. Children’s rights can be taken into account to a much larger extent than today and so should be done

    Olika ansvarsformer för sexualbrott mot barn i 6 kap. 13 § BrB - Med anledning av MÀnniskohandelsutredningens lagförslag i SOU 2016:42

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    Ämnet för denna uppsats Ă€r regleringen i 6 kap. 13 § BrB, som föreskriver att Ă€ven den som inte insĂ„g men hade skĂ€lig anledning att anta att ett barn Ă€r underĂ„rigt ska dömas till ansvar. Ansvar för sexualbrott förutsĂ€tter som huvudregel att en gĂ€rningsperson har uppsĂ„t i förhĂ„llande till att ett barn Ă€r underĂ„rigt men 6 kap. 13 § BrB utgör sĂ„ledes ett undantag hĂ€rtill. BestĂ€mmelsen syftar dels till att skydda barn mot sexuella handlingar, dels till att skydda misstĂ€nkta frĂ„n att dömas dĂ„ ingen klandervĂ€rdhet visats. Med anledning av regeringens lagförslag i SOU 2016:42, som föreslĂ„r att 6 kap. 13 § BrB ska reformeras, syftar uppsatsen till att ur ett rĂ€ttssĂ€kerhetsperspektiv och ur ett rĂ€ttstrygghetsperspektiv utreda behovet av en förĂ€ndring av paragrafen. I en god rĂ€ttsstat Ă€r den tilltalades rĂ€ttssĂ€kerhet en grundlĂ€ggande rĂ€ttighet, och innebĂ€r att rĂ€ttsordningen ska bestĂ„ av regler som Ă€r förutsebara och som tillĂ€mpas pĂ„ ett enhetligt sĂ€tt. Samtidigt ska allmĂ€nheten, i detta fall barnen, tillförsĂ€kras rĂ€ttstrygghet i form av en effektiv lagföring av gĂ€rningspersoner. Barn under 15 Ă„r kan inte samtycka till sexuella handlingar, vilket innebĂ€r att den som begĂ„r en sexuell handling med ett barn under 15 Ă„r har begĂ„tt ett sexualbrott mot barn. Även vissa handlingar med barn över 15 Ă„r men under 18 Ă„r Ă€r straffbara, trots att barn över 15 Ă„r har uppnĂ„tt Ă„ldern för sexuell sjĂ€lvbestĂ€mmanderĂ€tt. BestĂ€mmelsen i 6 kap. 13 § BrB tillĂ€mpas i förhĂ„llande till alla sexualbrott mot barn och Ă€r av stor betydelse för om en gĂ€rning Ă€r straffbar eller inte. Regeln har dock inte förĂ€ndrats sedan 1962 och inte heller har Högsta domstolen förtydligat den. I samband med friande domar har regeln uppmĂ€rksammats och kritiserats av sĂ„vĂ€l allmĂ€nhet som framstĂ„ende jurister. FrĂ„n flera olika hĂ„ll har det framförts att den behöver förĂ€ndras för att barns rĂ€tt till skydd inte ska urholkas. Förhoppningen med uppsatsen Ă€r att klargöra rĂ€ttslĂ€get och ge förslag pĂ„ förbĂ€ttringar för att öka rĂ€ttssĂ€kerheten och rĂ€ttstryggheten. För att ge framstĂ€llningen en mer dynamisk framtoning Ă„terges Ă„sikter frĂ„n praktiker löpande i texten. I analysen konstateras att lagtexten och förarbetena ger lite vĂ€gledning för tillĂ€mpningen av 6 kap. 13 § BrB. Det framgĂ„r endast att barnets kroppsutveckling och omstĂ€ndigheterna i övrigt ska beaktas. Tolkningen har dĂ€rmed överlĂ€mnats till domstolarna, vilket har resulterat i att rĂ€ttstillĂ€mpningen varken Ă€r enhetlig eller förutsebar. Det innebĂ€r att det föreligger rĂ€ttssĂ€kerhetsbrister. Vidare finns det flera bevissvĂ„righeter kopplade till bedömningen av barns kroppsutveckling, vilket innebĂ€r att en invĂ€ndning om att gĂ€rningspersonen trott att barnet varit Ă€ldre riskerar att inte kunna motbevisas. DĂ€rmed blir lagföringen ineffektiv och rĂ€ttstryggheten Ă€ventyras. BestĂ€mmelsen Ă€r sĂ„ledes i behov av en förĂ€ndring. Det konstateras att ansvaret för att Ă„tgĂ€rda problematiken borde ligga pĂ„ lagstiftaren och att det dĂ€rför Ă€r bra att bestĂ€mmelsen nyligen har utretts. Lagförslaget bedöms förvisso i viss mĂ„n förbĂ€ttra rĂ€ttssĂ€kerheten och rĂ€ttstryggheten men anses inte i tillrĂ€cklig utstrĂ€ckning komma Ă„t problematiken. En del bedömningsfrĂ„gor kvarstĂ„r, bland annat rörande barns kroppsutveckling. För att ytterligare skĂ€rpa lagstiftningen anges dĂ€rför att ett alternativ kan vara att införa ett strikt ansvar med ett s.k. good-faith försvar för barn under 13 Ă„r, medan ett oaktsamhetsansvar borde gĂ€lla för barn under 18 Ă„r.The subject of this essay is the regulation in Chapter 6, 13th article of the BrB, which stipulates that even those who did not realise, but had reasonable reason to assume that a child is minor age, shall be sentenced to liability. The responsibility for sexual offences generally requires that the offender is intentional in relation to the fact that a child is underage, but Chapter 6, 13th article of the BrB is an exception to this. This provision is aimed both as a way of protecting children from sexual acts, and for protecting suspects from being sentenced without proof of intent or negligence in relation to the child’s age while upholding the suspects right to a foreseeable legislation. Following the government's bill in SOU 2016: 42, which proposes that Chapter 6, 13th article of the BrB is to be reformed, this essay aims to investigate the need for a change of provision from a legal certainty perspective, and from a legal security perspective. In a good rule of law, the legal certainty of the accused is a fundamental right, and means that the rule of law must consist of rules that are foreseeable and applied in a uniform manner. At the same time, the public, in this case the children, must be assured of a legal certainty in the form of effective prosecution of offenders. Children under the age of 15 can not consent to sexual acts, which means that the person who commits a sexual act with a child under the age of 15 has committed a sexual offence against a child. Certain actions with children over the age of 15 but under 18 years are also punishable, even though children over the age of 15 have reached the age of sexual self-determination. The provision in Chapter 6, 13th article of the BrB is applied in relation to all sexual offences against children and is of great importance to whether an offence is punishable or not. However, the rule has not been changed since 1962 and nor have the Supreme Court clarified it. The rule has been noted and criticised by both public and prominent lawyers, particularly in connection with detention sentences. It has been suggested from various sources that the law needs to change, in order to prevent children's right to protection from being eroded. The hope of this paper is to clarify the legal situation and suggest improvements to increase legal certainty and legal security. In order to give the presentation a more dynamic appearance, opinions from practitioners are reproduced in the text. The analysis finds that the text and the preliminary work provide small guidance for the application of Chapter 6, 13th article of the BrB. It is only apparent that the child's physical development and circumstances must be taken into account. The interpretation has thus been handed over to the courts, which has resulted in that the legal application has neither been uniform nor foreseeable. This means that there are legal uncertainties. In addition, there are several probabilities associated with the assessment of the child's development, which means that an objection that the perpetrator thought the child was older may not be able to be disproved. This makes inefficient prosecution and legal security is compromised. The provision is therefore in need of a change. It is stated that responsibility for addressing the problem should be on the legislator and that it is therefore good that the provision has recently been investigated. The bill is judged to improve legal certainty and legal security, but is not considered to adequately assess problems. A number of as- sessment questions remains, relating to the child's body development. In order to further tighten the legislation, it is proposed that a strict liability with a so-called good-faith defence should be introduced for children under 13 years, while a negligence liability should apply to children under 18 years

    Computer-aided surface estimation of pain drawings – intra- and inter-rater reliability

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    Pain drawings are often utilized in the documentation of pain conditions. The aim here was to investigate intra- and inter-rater reliability of area measurements performed on pain drawings consecutively, using the computer program Quantify One. Forty-eight patients with chronic nonmalignant pain had shaded in their experienced pain on the front and back views of a pain drawing. The templates were scanned and displayed on a 17-inch computer screen. Two independent examiners systematically encircled the shaded-in areas of the pain drawings with help of a computer mouse, twice each on two separate days, respectively. With this method it is possible to encircle each marked area and to obtain immediate details of its size. The total surface area (mm2) was calculated for each pain drawing measurement. Each examiner measured about 2400 areas, and as a whole, the number of areas measured varied only by 3%. The intra-rater reliability was high with intraclass correlation coefficients 0.992 in Examiner A and 0.998 in Examiner B. The intra-individual absolute differences were small within patients within one examiner as well as between the two examiners. The inter-rater reliability was also high. Still, significant differences in the absolute mean areas (13%) were seen between the two examiners in the second to fourth measurement sessions, indicating that one of the examiners measured systematically less. The measurement error was ≀10%, indicating that use of the program would be advantageous both in clinical practice and in research, but if repeated, preferably with the same examiner. Since pain drawings with this method are digitized, high quality data without loss of information is possible to store in electronic medical records for later analysis, both regarding precise location and size of pain area. We conclude that the computer program Quantify One is a reliable method to calculate the areas of pain drawings

    Ungas fritidsresande – En studie av barn och ungdomars förutsĂ€ttningar att resa hĂ„llbart pĂ„ fritiden

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    The aim of this master thesis was to examine the leisure travel conditions of children and adolescents. Results from The Swedish national travel survey 2011-2014 shows that journeys to leisure activities represents a great portion of the total travel and a significant share is made by car. Former research implies that active transport among youth improves physical and mental health, increases independence and affects the sustainable habits regarding travel in the adulthood. Traffic creates inaccessible cities for children due to unsafe traffic environment and retardant barriers. Unsafe traffic environment is an important reason why parents choose to drive their children by car. Our case study in the urban area of Lund shows that the local buses reach many destinations for leisure activities but it also showed that several destinations is not accessible with commonly accepted distance to the closest stop. A weakness in the cycle path network of Lund was found in the center of the city where there were no separated cycle paths and cyclists share the space with cars and buses. An inventory of the nearest environment of two destinations for leisure activities in Lund shows that the travel conditions for children and adolescents can be much improved

    Att bli vuxen - synsÀtt pÄ processen att bli vuxen för personer med utvecklingsstörning

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    This study is based on nine interviews with counsellors in habilitation and education as well as teachers in special schools, with the goal of studying the extent to which the theoretical models of normalization - as formulated by Bengt Nirje (2003) and Wolf Wolfensberger (1972) - apply to their daily work of supporting and preparing mentally retarded youngsters for transition to adult life. The conclusion is that the approaches of the staff are more in line with the principle formulated by Nirje, even though Wolfensberger's principle is clearly dis-cernible as well.The staff emphasize the importance of giving mentally retarded people the opurtunity to, like other youngsters, move away from the parental home and separate from the parents. Since they do not necessarily possess a capacity of their own, they should, according to the staff, be given support to build social relationships and to form an active lifestyle in order to have similar life conditions like other. In accordance with the principle of Wolfens-berger, the importance of knowing how to be seen by others is also considered important

    Organic iron complexes enhance iron transport capacity along estuarine salinity gradients of Baltic estuaries

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    Rivers discharge a notable amount of dissolved Fe (1:5×109 mol yr-1) to coastal waters but are still not considered important sources of bioavailable Fe to open marine waters. The reason is that the vast majority of particular and dissolved riverine Fe is considered to be lost to the sediment due to aggregation during estuarine mixing. Recently, however, several studies demonstrated relatively high stability of riverine Fe to salinity-induced aggregation, and it has been proposed that organically complexed Fe (Fe-OM) can "survive" the salinity gradient, while Fe (oxy)hydroxides are more prone to aggregation and selectively removed. In this study, we directly identified, by X-ray absorption spectroscopy, the occurrence of these two Fe phases across eight boreal rivers draining into the Baltic Sea and confirmed a significant but variable contribution of Fe-OM in relation to Fe (oxy)hydroxides among river mouths. We further found that Fe-OM was more prevalent at high flow conditions in spring than at low flow conditions during autumn and that Fe-OM was more dominant upstream in a catchment than at the river mouth. The stability of Fe to increasing salinity, as assessed by artificial mixing experiments, correlated well to the relative contribution of Fe-OM, confirming that organic complexes promote Fe transport capacity. This study suggests that boreal rivers may provide significant amounts of potentially bioavailable Fe beyond the estuary, due to organic matter complexes
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