Illegal wildlife trade in traditional markets, on Instagram and Facebook: Raptors as a case study

Monitoring illegal wildlife trade and how the modus operandi of traders changes over time is of vital importance to mitigate the negative effects this trade can have on wild populations. We focused on the trade of birds of prey in Indonesia (2016–2021) in bird markets (12 markets, 194 visits), on Instagram (19 seller profiles) and on Facebook (11 open groups). We link species prevalence and asking prices to body size, abundance and geographic range. Smaller species were more traded in bird markets and less so online. Abundance in trade is in part linked to their abundance in the wild. Asking prices (mean of USD 87) are positively correlated with size and negatively with their abundance in the wild. Authorities seize birds of prey according to their observed abundance in trade, but only 10% of seizures lead to successful prosecutions. The trade is in violation of national laws and the terms and conditions of the online platforms; the low prosecution rate with minimal fines shows a lack of recognition of the urgency of the threat that trade poses to already imperilled wildlife. The shift of trade from physical bird markets to the online marketplace necessitates a different strategy both for monitoring and enforcement

Trade in Prevost’s squirrels: legality, risk for introduction and disease transmission

quirrels traded for pets or consumption have the potential to be vectors for zoonotic disease transmission and to establish themselves as invasive species. Callosciurus spp. (Greek for beautiful squirrel) are popular in the pet trade due to their medium size and many colour variants, though several feral populations have established themselves in various parts of the world and these wild-caught individuals can carry and spread infectious diseases. Here, we investigate the live trade in Prevost’s squirrels (C. prevosti) in Indonesia where they are naturally found on the islands of Sumatra, Bangka and Borneo. Between 2016 and 2024, we recorded 284 Prevost’s squirrels for sale, viz., 115 in the physical markets and 169 online. We detected the species for sale in Sumatra (13 individuals), Bangka (7) and Borneo (3), i.e. within their natural range, but also on Java (242) and Bali (4). The mean asking price per individual was US$63, and younger individuals commanded higher prices than older ones. Asking prices were not higher in cities further away from the species’ native range nor in cities with higher purchasing power. All individuals were wild-caught, and with a domestic quota of five individuals allowed to be traded as pets per year (45 over the study period) most of this trade is illegal under Indonesian law. This is distinctly different from trade in Prevost’s squirrels in for instance Europe or the USA where legally captive-bred individuals are offered for sale. In Indonesia the illegal trade happens in the open and despite the risk of the spread of zoonotic diseases wherever it is traded there appears to be little incentive on the side of the authorities to curb this trade. Their widespread availability on Java and Bali risks the accidental or deliberate introduction on these two islands. Better coordination is needed between the Indonesian authorities, online sales sites, pet traders and consumers to stop the sale of illegally obtained Prevost’s squirrels to limit the risk of them becoming invasive species or contributing to the spread of emerging infectious diseases

Global online trade in primates for pets

The trade in primates as pets is a global enterprise and as access to the Internet has increased, so too has the trade of live primates online. While quantifying primate trade in physical markets is relatively straightforward, limited insights have been made into trade via the Internet. Here we followed a three-pronged approach to estimate the prevalence and ease of purchasing primates online in countries with different socioeconomic characteristics. We first conducted a literature review, in which we found that Malaysia, Thailand, the USA, Ukraine, South Africa, and Russia stood out in terms of the number of primate individuals being offered for sale as pets in the online trade. Then, we assessed the perceived ease of purchasing pet primates online in 77 countries, for which we found a positive relationship with the Internet Penetration Rate, total human population and Human Development Index, but not to Gross Domestic Product per capita or corruption levels of the countries. Using these results, we then predicted the levels of online primate trade in countries for which we did not have first-hand data. From this we created a global map of potential prevalence of primate trade online. Finally, we analysed price data of the two primate taxa most consistently offered for sale, marmosets and capuchins. We found that prices increased with the ease of purchasing primates online and the Gross Domestic Product per capita. This overview provides insight into the nature and intricacies of the online primate pet trade and advocates for increased trade regulation and monitoring in both primate range and non-range countries where trade has been substantially reported. © 2023 The Author

Wildlife Trade in the Digital Age: The Role of the Internet in Monitoring the Trade in Wild Plants and Animals in Thailand

The legal and illegal trade in wildlife is a multi-dollar industry that has detrimental impacts on species biodiversity, especially exacerbated in the 21st century as a result of increased globalisation and Internet accessibility. In this thesis, I aim to develop the understanding of wildlife trade in the digital age by examining the role of the Internet in monitoring trade in wild plants and animals in Thailand. The first chapter focuses on using open-sourced legal trade of wildlife using the decadal trade data of reptiles and amphibians from the CITES trade database. I demonstrate that while the volume of traded reptiles and amphibians are constantly growing for a vibrant exotic pet and most likely leather market, there also an increasing trend for captive-bred individuals. Subsequently, I demonstrate the shift from traditional markets to online platforms by evaluating the trade in birds of prey and owls. I found that there though there is a drastic shift in volume of birds for sale in markets as recorded in surveys conducted since the 1960s compared to online markets today, there was no clear statistical difference in species composition. It is also notable that the sales most likely illicit as they are mostly of native birds. The third chapter focuses on Facebook as a key platform and examines factors that influence price in a virtual market trade of primates and carnivores. I find a combination of illegal and legal animals for sale. Price and availability are not always explained in predicted ways, i.e. illegal native animals are cheaper than legal non-native animals. These relationships imply that there are degrees of ‘perceived or realised’ rarity associated as a key selling point and these values influence demand and prices. The final content chapter uses open-sourced seizure data through media news reports to monitor the rosewood trade. I found that the rosewood trade is geographically dispersed throughout Thailand, with most of the trade movement intended towards international markets. There was a decrease in rosewood seizure activity over the six-year period from 2013 to 2019. This chapter crucially demonstrates the ability to gather information to map out seizure hotspots, as well as illustrate modus operandi and trade pathways of timber moving in and out of Thailand. Despite progresses made, current domestic and international policies are still insufficient, even after the 2019 legislative reform. Social media is central in the modern-day wildlife trade: as a trade platform, a monitoring tool, and if utilised correctly, an awareness tool. The outcomes in this thesis provide opportunities for policy change at local, domestic and international levels with interventions targeting law enforcement

Illegal pet trade on social media as an emerging impediment to the conservation of Asian otters species

Social media has become an increasingly popular platform to trade legal and illegal wildlife. Here, we evaluate the online trade of otters, a group of globally threatened taxa in Thailand, a country of high global social media use. During the 14-month period, we monitored five Facebook groups to establish a primary understanding of the scope and scale of the trade. We recorded 160 sales posts (337 individual otters) of two species, the Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinereus) (81%) and the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) (19%). Newborn otter pups accounted for 53% of the offers, whereas young otters accounted for 35%. Prices averaged US$78, where the smooth-coated otter was offered at a significantly higher price than the Asian small-clawed otter. Juvenile otters were also significantly more expensive than newborns. Trade appears to be domestic; however, the potential for international trade cannot be overlooked. Although otters are protected domestically, we find that the trade is easily accessible and prevalent. The results reflect current inadequacies in enforcement and legislation in keeping pace with the rapidly shifting nature of the Internet in Thailand and throughout the global Internet community. A consistent collaborative effort from consumers, enforcement agencies, and operators is required to address this illicit trade. Keywords: Exotic pets, Facebook, Illegal wildlife trade, Otters, Social medi

Is the scaling of swim speed in sharks driven by metabolism?

The movement rates of sharks are intrinsically linked to foraging ecology, predator–prey dynamics and wider ecosystem functioning in marine systems. During ram ventilation, however, shark movement rates are linked not only to ecological parameters, but also to physiology, as minimum speeds are required to provide sufficient water flow across the gills to maintain metabolism. We develop a geometric model predicting a positive scaling relationship between swim speeds in relation to body size and ultimately shark metabolism, taking into account estimates for the scaling of gill dimensions. Empirical data from 64 studies (26 species) were compiled to test our model while controlling for the influence of phylogenetic similarity between related species. Our model predictions were found to closely resemble the observed relationships from tracked sharks, providing a means to infer mobility in particularly intractable species

2400 male-female mating pairs outcomes

Males&Females.xlsx This file contains all information of each male-female pair, along with PCA for reproductive organs and behavior. The columns are labelled: Line – inbred line (12) in.out – inbred/outbred status (outbred all belong to one line) Male.ES – male eyespan Male.Thorax Testes AG – Accessory Glands Female.ID Female.ES – female eyespan Accept.Reject – given that a mating attempt occurred Male.ID Attempt – was there a mating attempt, yes or no Follow – a behaviour Bob – a behavior Grapple – a behavior Time.to.mate – how many seconds untila mating attempt Date – block structure Time.in.pair – same as Time.to.mate except that those where there was no mating attempt are labelled 900 seconds PC.Reporgan – PCA Testes and Accessory Glands PC1Beh.min – PCA of three behaviours per minute PC2Beh.min - PCA of three behaviours per minut

Data from: The complexity of mating decisions in stalk-eyed flies

All too often, studies of sexual selection focus exclusively on the responses in one sex, on single traits, typically those that are exaggerated and strongly sexually dimorphic. They ignore a range of less obvious traits and behavior, in both sexes, involved in the interactions leading to mate choice. To remedy this imbalance, we analyze a textbook example of sexual selection in the stalk-eyed fly (Diasemopsis meigenii). We studied several traits in a novel, insightful, and efficient experimental design, examining 2,400 male–female pairs in a “round-robin” array, where each female was tested against multiple males and vice versa. In D. meigenii, females exhibit strong mate preference for males with highly exaggerated eyespan, and so we deliberately constrained variation in male eyespan to reveal the importance of other traits. Males performing more precopulatory behavior were more likely to attempt to mate with females and be accepted by them. However, behavior was not a necessary part of courtship, as it was absent from over almost half the interactions. Males with larger reproductive organs (testes and accessory glands) did not make more mating attempts, but there was a strong tendency for females to accept mating attempts from such males. How females detect differences in male reproductive organ size remains unclear. In addition, females with larger eyespan, an indicator of size and fecundity, attracted more mating attempts from males, but this trait did not alter female acceptance. Genetic variation among males had a strong influence on male mating attempts and female acceptance, both via the traits we studied and other unmeasured attributes. These findings demonstrate the importance of assaying multiple traits in males and females, rather than focusing solely on prominent and exaggerated sexually dimorphic traits. The approach allows a more complete understanding of the complex mating decisions made by both males and females