Early markers of airways inflammation and occupational asthma: Rationale, study design and follow-up rates among bakery, pastry and hairdressing apprentices

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Occupational asthma is a common type of asthma caused by a specific agent in the workplace. The basic alteration of occupational asthma is airways inflammation. Although most patients with occupational asthma are mature adults, there is evidence that airways inflammation starts soon after inception of exposure, including during apprenticeship. Airways hyper responsiveness to methacholine is a valid surrogate marker of airways inflammation, which has proved useful in occupational epidemiology. But it is time-consuming, requires active subject's cooperation and is not readily feasible. Other non-invasive and potentially more useful tests include the forced oscillation technique, measurement of fraction exhaled nitric oxide, and eosinophils count in nasal lavage fluid.</p> <p>Methods and design</p> <p>This study aims to investigate early development of airways inflammation and asthma-like symptoms in apprentice bakers, pastry-makers and hairdressers, three populations at risk of occupational asthma whose work-related exposures involve agents of different nature. The objectives are to (i) examine the performance of the non-invasive tests cited above in detecting early airways inflammation that might eventually develop into occupational asthma; and (ii) evaluate whether, and how, constitutional (e.g. atopy) and behavioural (e.g. smoking) risk factors for occupational asthma modulate the effects of allergenic and/or irritative substances involved in these occupations. This paper presents the study rationale and detailed protocol.</p> <p>Discussion</p> <p>Among 441 volunteers included at the first visit, 354 attended the fourth one. Drop outs were investigated and showed unrelated to the study outcome. Sample size and follow-up participation rates suggest that the data collected in this study will allow it to meet its objectives.</p

Associations of airway inflammation and responsiveness markers in non asthmatic subjects at start of apprenticeship

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Bronchial Hyperresponsiveness (BHR) is considered a hallmark of asthma. Other methods are helpful in epidemiological respiratory health studies including Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide (FENO) and Eosinophils Percentage (EP) in nasal lavage fluid measuring markers for airway inflammation along with the Forced Oscillatory Technique measuring Airway resistance (AR). Can their outcomes discriminate profiles of respiratory health in healthy subjects starting apprenticeship in occupations with a risk of asthma?</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Rhinoconjunctivitis, asthma-like symptoms, FEV1 and AR post-Methacholine Bronchial Challenge (MBC) test results, FENO measurements and EP were all investigated in apprentice bakers, pastry-makers and hairdressers not suffering from asthma. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was simultaneously conducted in relation to these groups and this generated a synthetic partition (EI). Associations between groups of subjects based on BHR and EI respectively, as well as risk factors, symptoms and investigations were also assessed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Among the 441 apprentice subjects, 45 (10%) declared rhinoconjunctivitis-like symptoms, 18 (4%) declared asthma-like symptoms and 26 (6%) suffered from BHR. The mean increase in AR post-MBC test was 21% (sd = 20.8%). The median of FENO values was 12.6 ppb (2.6-132 range). Twenty-six subjects (6.7%) had EP exceeding 14%. BHR was associated with atopy (p < 0.01) and highest FENO values (p = 0.09). EI identified 39 subjects with eosinophilic inflammation (highest values of FENO and eosinophils), which was associated with BHR and atopy.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>Are any of the identified markers predictive of increased inflammatory responsiveness or of development of symptoms caused by occupational exposures? Analysis of population follow-up will attempt to answer this question.</p

Pontiac fever: an operational definition for epidemiological studies

BACKGROUND: Pontiac fever is usually described in epidemic settings. Detection of Pontiac fever is a marker of an environmental contamination by Legionella and should thereby call for prevention measures in order to prevent outbreak of Legionnaire's disease. The objective of this study is to propose an operational definition of Pontiac fever that is amenable to epidemiological surveillance and investigation in a non epidemic setting. METHODS: A population of 560 elderly subjects residing in 25 nursing homes was followed during 4 months in order to assess the daily incidence of symptoms associated, in the literature, with Pontiac fever. The water and aerosol of one to 8 showers by nursing home were characterized combining conventional bacterial culture of Legionella and the Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) technique that used oligonucleotides probes specific for Legionellaceae. A definition of Pontiac fever was devised based on clinical symptoms described in epidemic investigations and on their timing after the exposure event. The association between incidence of Pontiac fever and shower contamination levels was evaluated to test the relevance of this definition. RESULTS: The proposed definition of Pontiac fever associated the following criteria: occurrence of at least one symptom among headache, myalgia, fever and shivers, possibly associated with other 'minor' symptoms, within three days after a shower contaminated by Legionella, during a maximum of 8 days (minimum 2 days). 23 such cases occurred during the study (incidence rate: 0.125 cases per person-year [95% CI: 0.122–0.127]). A concentration of Legionella in water equal to or greater than 10(4).L(-1 )(FISH method) was associated with a significant increase of incidence of Pontiac fever (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Once validated in other settings, the proposed definition of Pontiac fever might be used to develop epidemiological surveillance and help draw attention on sources of Legionella

Marqueurs précoces non invasifs de l'inflammation des voies aériennes dans les métiers à risque d'asthme professionnel : Etude dans une population d'apprentis boulangers, pâtissiers et coiffeurs

Background and objectives: Occupational asthma (OA) is the most frequent work-related lung disease in industrialized countries. More than 300 agents, either of high molecular weight (such as flour, laboratory animal...) or of low molecular weight (isocyanates, alkalin persulfates...) have been reported to cause occupational asthma. The socio-economic consequences of OA are important and poorly compensated by the occupational diseases mitigation system. Considerable efforts of prevention are made in industrial nations. Early identification of subjects at risk of OA represents a major aspect of this prevention. Airways inflammation is the first and key expression of occupational asthma. It is investigated by means of several tests such as bronchial biopsy, assessment of bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR) to specific occupational agents, non specific BHR to a chemical stimulus. But these examinations are invasive, time consuming, difficult to implement away from medical facilities. Recently, non invasive tests have been proposed such as measurement of fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FENO), and cellular and molecular analysis of lavage nasal fluid. The MIBAP project (Markers of Bronchial Inflammation in Occupational Asthma) takes place in this setting. Its main objective is to examine the performance of a battery of non invasive tests likely to detect early airways inflammation that might eventually develop into OA. Material and methods: It is a prospective follow-up study of 441 bakers, pastry-makers and hairdressers apprentices in order to evaluate the airways inflammation during their 2-year apprenticeship period. The methacholine challenge test was used the "gold standard" to evaluate the airways inflammation. The other medical examinations whose association with airways inflammation have been studied are a clinical questionnaire, measurement of FENO, spirometry and measurement of respiratory impedance, count of eosinophil cells in nasal lavage fluid, and sensitization to common and occupational allergens by skin prick test. Results: Subjects, all volunteers, are 17 years old on average. Among them, 90 (20.0%) quit for several reasons, unrelated to the study outcome. Among work-related respiratory conditions, only asthma-like symptoms increased significantly since the the beginning of the study. While atopy (sensitization to commons allergens) remained stable, sensitization to occupational allergens increased from 6.4% to 9.6% (p=0.01) during the study. Incidence of BHR was 18.2% over all subjects; 7 months after the beginning of the training, the incidence rate among bakers and pastry-makers was statistically greater than among hairdressers (difference of 0,206 case per 100 person-yaers [CI = 0.01 - 0.40]). The increase of FENO levels is correlated with occurrence of BHR during the follow-up period (OR = 2.0 CI 95% = 1.21-3.32), regardless of atopy (increase of 21.6% and of 3.8% median FENO respectively for non-atopic and atopic subjects). Atopy when engaging in the training programme was associated with incidence of BHR among bakers and pastry-makers, not among hairdressers. Conversely, sensitization of hairdressers to alkaline persulfates at the end of the follow-up was related with occurrence of BHR. Discussion and conclusion: The number of subjects lost to follow-up was reasonably low (about 20%) for this kind of longitudinal study, compared with other similar works, which is in favour of the acceptability of the tests. The difference in the kinetics of BHR according to the training track might relate to differences in the mechanisms of sensitization between LMW and HMW agents. The latter involve IgE dependant processes while the mechanisms at hand with the former are yet to be elucidated. To date, no study has been published concerning the association between the increase of FENO and the occurrence of BHR. Further studies are necessary to confirm these results, before usage of FENO as a means for early detection of subjects at risk of OA be recommended.Introduction et objectifs: L'asthme professionnel (AP) est la maladie respiratoire d'origine professionnelle la plus fréquente dans les pays industrialisés. Plus de 300 agents étiologiques de l'AP ont été recensés. Il s'agit d'agents de haut poids moléculaire tels que les enzymes, la farine, les animaux de laboratoire et d'agents de bas poids moléculaire tels que les isocyanates, les persulfates. Les conséquences socioprofessionnelles de l'AP sont graves et mal compensées par la réparation accordée au titre des maladies professionnelles. Des efforts considérables de prévention sont faits dans plusieurs pays. Le repérage rapide du sujet à risque d'AP constitue un aspect majeur de ce volet de prévention. L?inflammation des voies aériennes (IVA) est la manifestation princeps de l'AP. Plusieurs méthodes permettent d'investiguer aujourd'hui cette IVA. Il s'agit de la biopsie bronchique, de la mesure de l'hyperréactivité bronchique (HRB) spécifique, de l'hyperréactivité bronchique non spécifique à stimulus chimique. Mais ces méthodes sont invasives et difficiles à mettre en oeuvre en pratique courante. Depuis peu, des méthodes non invasives sont proposées. Parmi ces méthodes figurent la mesure du monoxyde d'azote exhalé (NOE) et l'analyse du liquide de lavage nasal. L'étude MIBAP (Marqueurs d'Inflammation Bronchique dans l?Asthme Professionnel) s'inscrit dans cette ligne. Son principal objectif est d'examiner les performances d'une batterie de tests faciles à mettre en oeuvre dans un cadre épidémiologique et professionnel et permettant d'évaluer de façon non invasive l'inflammation bronchique initiale susceptible d'évoluer vers l'installation d'un AP. Matériel et méthodes : Il s'agit d'une étude longitudinale prospective visant à évaluer chez 441apprentis boulangers/pâtissiers et coiffeurs le développement d'une IVA au cours de leurs deux années de formation. La version abrégée du test à la métacholine a été utilisée comme référence pour détecter l'IVA. Les autres examens dont le lien avec l'IVA a été étudié sont : le questionnaire clinique, la mesure du NOE, la spirométrie et l'impédance respiratoire, l'analyse du liquide de lavage nasal, la recherche de la sensibilisation aux allergènes communs et professionnels. Résultats : Les sujets, tous volontaires, sont âgés en moyenne de 17 ans à l'entrée de l'étude. Le nombre de perdus de vue est de 90 (20.0 %), sans lien avec l'objet de l'étude. Parmi les symptômes, seuls ceux évocateurs d'asthme augmentent significativement entre le début et la fin de l'étude. Alors que la prévalence de l'atopie est restée stable, la sensibilisation aux allergènes professionnels est passée de 6.4 % à 9.6 % (p=0.01). L'incidence de l'HRB non spécifique est de 18,2% chez l'ensemble des sujets ; à 7 mois du début de la formation, le taux d'incidence chez les boulangers et pâtissiers est statistiquement plus élevé que chez les coiffeurs (différence de 0,206 cas pour 100 personnes-années [IC à 95 % = 0,01 - 0,40]. L'augmentation du NOE depuis le début de l'apprentissage est associée à l'apparition de l'HRB à un moment donné du suivi (OR = 2,00 IC à 95 % = 1,21-3,32). Cette augmentation est plus importante chez les non atopiques (21,6 % Vs 3,8 % chez les atopiques). L'atopie chez les boulangers/pâtissiers et la sensibilisation aux persulfates alcalins chez les coiffeurs sont associés à l'apparition de l'hyperréactivité bronchique. Discussion et conclusion : Le taux d'abandon observé dans cette étude est plus faible que celui souvent rapporté dans les études de suivi d'apprentis. Ceci montre la faisabilité du protocole et l'acceptabilité des tests par les sujets. La différence dans la cinétique d'apparition de l'HRB observée selon les filières pourrait être due à la différence de mécanisme de sensibilisation mis en jeu par les deux types d'agents (haut poids et bas poids moléculaire). Les agents de haut poids moléculaire impliquent un mécanisme de type IgE alors que le mécanisme des agents de bas poids moléculaire n'est pas encore clairement élucidé. L'augmentation du monoxyde d'azote exhalé pourrait s'avérer être un moyen simple pour repérer la survenue d'une HRB. Ces résultats méritent d'être confirmés dans d'autres études avant de proposer ces outils comme moyen de dépistage des sujets à risque d'asthme professionnel

Non invasive early markers or airways inflammation in occupations at occupational asthma risk : study among bakers, patry-makers and hairdressers apprentices

Introduction et objectifs: L’asthme professionnel (AP) est la maladie respiratoire d’origine professionnelle la plus fréquente dans les pays industrialisés. Plus de 300 agents étiologiques de l’AP ont été recensés. Il s’agit d’agents de haut poids moléculaire tels que les enzymes, la farine, les animaux de laboratoire et d’agents de bas poids moléculaire tels que les isocyanates, les persulfates. Les conséquences socioprofessionnelles de l’AP sont graves et mal compensées par la réparation accordée au titre des maladies professionnelles. Des efforts considérables de prévention sont faits dans plusieurs pays. Le repérage rapide du sujet à risque d’AP constitue un aspect majeur de ce volet de prévention. L’inflammation des voies aériennes (IVA) est la manifestation princeps de l’AP. Plusieurs méthodes permettent d’investiguer aujourd’hui cette IVA. Il s’agit de la biopsie bronchique, de la mesure de l’hyperréactivité bronchique (HRB) spécifique, de l’hyperréactivité bronchique non spécifique à stimulus chimique. Mais ces méthodes sont invasives et difficiles à mettre en œuvre en pratique courante. Depuis peu, des méthodes non invasives sont proposées. Parmi ces méthodes figurent la mesure du monoxyde d’azote exhalé (NOE) et l’analyse du liquide de lavage nasal. L’étude MIBAP (Marqueurs d’Inflammation Bronchique dans l’Asthme Professionnel) s’inscrit dans cette ligne. Son principal objectif est d’examiner les performances d’une batterie de tests faciles à mettre en œuvre dans un cadre épidémiologique et professionnel et permettant d’évaluer de façon non invasive l’inflammation bronchique initiale susceptible d’évoluer vers l’installation d’un AP. Matériel et méthodes : Il s’agit d’une étude longitudinale prospective visant à évaluer chez 441apprentis boulangers/pâtissiers et coiffeurs le développement d’une IVA au cours de leurs deux années de formation. La version abrégée du test à la métacholine a été utilisée comme référence pour détecter l’IVA. Les autres examens dont le lien avec l’IVA a été étudié sont : le questionnaire clinique, la mesure du NOE, la spirométrie et l’impédance respiratoire, l’analyse du liquide de lavage nasal, la recherche de la sensibilisation aux allergènes communs et professionnels. Résultats : Les sujets, tous volontaires, sont âgés en moyenne de 17 ans à l’entrée de l’étude. Le nombre de perdus de vue est de 90 (20.0 %), sans lien avec l’objet de l’étude. Parmi les symptômes, seuls ceux évocateurs d’asthme augmentent significativement entre le début et la fin de l’étude. Alors que la prévalence de l’atopie est restée stable, la sensibilisation aux allergènes professionnels est passée de 6.4 % à 9.6 % (p=0.01). L’incidence de l’HRB non spécifique est de 18,2% chez l’ensemble des sujets ; à 7 mois du début de la formation, le taux d’incidence chez les boulangers et pâtissiers est statistiquement plus élevé que chez les coiffeurs (différence de 0,206 cas pour 100 personnes-années [IC à 95 % = 0,01 – 0,40]. L’augmentation du NOE depuis le début de l’apprentissage est associée à l’apparition de l’HRB à un moment donné du suivi (OR = 2,00 IC à 95 % = 1,21-3,32). Cette augmentation est plus importante chez les non atopiques (21,6 % Vs 3,8 % chez les atopiques). L’atopie chez les boulangers/pâtissiers et la sensibilisation aux persulfates alcalins chez les coiffeurs sont associés à l’apparition de l’hyperréactivité bronchique. Discussion et conclusion : Le taux d’abandon observé dans cette étude est plus faible que celui souvent rapporté dans les études de suivi d’apprentis. Ceci montre la faisabilité du protocole et l’acceptabilité des tests par les sujets. La différence dans la cinétique d’apparition de l’HRB observée selon les filières pourrait être due à la différence de mécanisme de sensibilisation mis en jeu par les deux types d’agents (haut poids et bas poids moléculaire). Les agents de haut poids moléculaire impliquent un mécanisme de type IgE alors que le mécanisme des agents de bas poids moléculaire n’est pas encore clairement élucidé. L’augmentation du monoxyde d’azote exhalé pourrait s’avérer être un moyen simple pour repérer la survenue d’une HRB. Ces résultats méritent d’être confirmés dans d’autres études avant de proposer ces outils comme moyen de dépistage des sujets à risque d’asthme professionnel.Background and objectives: Occupational asthma (OA) is the most frequent work-related lung disease in industrialized countries. More than 300 agents, either of high molecular weight (such as flour, laboratory animal...) or of low molecular weight (isocyanates, alkalin persulfates...) have been reported to cause occupational asthma. The socio-economic consequences of OA are important and poorly compensated by the occupational diseases mitigation system. Considerable efforts of prevention are made in industrial nations. Early identification of subjects at risk of OA represents a major aspect of this prevention. Airways inflammation is the first and key expression of occupational asthma. It is investigated by means of several tests such as bronchial biopsy, assessment of bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR) to specific occupational agents, non specific BHR to a chemical stimulus. But these examinations are invasive, time consuming, difficult to implement away from medical facilities. Recently, non invasive tests have been proposed such as measurement of fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FENO), and cellular and molecular analysis of lavage nasal fluid. The MIBAP project (Markers of Bronchial Inflammation in Occupational Asthma) takes place in this setting. Its main objective is to examine the performance of a battery of non invasive tests likely to detect early airways inflammation that might eventually develop into OA. Material and methods: It is a prospective follow-up study of 441 bakers, pastry-makers and hairdressers apprentices in order to evaluate the airways inflammation during their 2-year apprenticeship period. The methacholine challenge test was used the “gold standard” to evaluate the airways inflammation. The other medical examinations whose association with airways inflammation have been studied are a clinical questionnaire, measurement of FENO, spirometry and measurement of respiratory impedance, count of eosinophil cells in nasal lavage fluid, and sensitization to common and occupational allergens by skin prick test. Results: Subjects, all volunteers, are 17 years old on average. Among them, 90 (20.0%) quit for several reasons, unrelated to the study outcome. Among work-related respiratory conditions, only asthma-like symptoms increased significantly since the the beginning of the study. While atopy (sensitization to commons allergens) remained stable, sensitization to occupational allergens increased from 6.4% to 9.6% (p=0.01) during the study. Incidence of BHR was 18.2% over all subjects; 7 months after the beginning of the training, the incidence rate among bakers and pastry-makers was statistically greater than among hairdressers (difference of 0,206 case per 100 person-yaers [CI = 0.01 – 0.40]). The increase of FENO levels is correlated with occurrence of BHR during the follow-up period (OR = 2.0 CI 95% = 1.21-3.32), regardless of atopy (increase of 21.6% and of 3.8% median FENO respectively for non-atopic and atopic subjects). Atopy when engaging in the training programme was associated with incidence of BHR among bakers and pastry-makers, not among hairdressers. Conversely, sensitization of hairdressers to alkaline persulfates at the end of the follow-up was related with occurrence of BHR. Discussion and conclusion: The number of subjects lost to follow-up was reasonably low (about 20%) for this kind of longitudinal study, compared with other similar works, which is in favour of the acceptability of the tests. The difference in the kinetics of BHR according to the training track might relate to differences in the mechanisms of sensitization between LMW and HMW agents. The latter involve IgE dependant processes while the mechanisms at hand with the former are yet to be elucidated. To date, no study has been published concerning the association between the increase of FENO and the occurrence of BHR. Further studies are necessary to confirm these results, before usage of FENO as a means for early detection of subjects at risk of OA be recommended

Seroprevalence of antibodies to Legionella among elderly people living in French nursing homes

International audienceThe authors are grateful to Pr. Jerome Etienne and his research team who have done all the serological analysis of this study. This research was supported by the Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire Environnementale (AFSSE) and the Direction Générale de la Santé (DGS). It was conducted in collaboration with the Centre Technique et Scientifique du Bâtiment (CSTB), Veolia Environnement and with the INSERM-CIC

Legionella bacteria in shower aerosols increase the risk of Pontiac fever among elderly subjects in retirement homes

International audienc

Legionella bacteria in shower aerosols increase the risk of Pontiac fever among elderly subjects in retirement homes

International audienc

Genetic predictors of inflammation in the risk of occupational asthma in young apprentices.

International audienceBACKGROUND: The influence of genetic predictors of inflammation and atopy on occupational asthma in apprentices is not known. OBJECTIVES: To assess the influence of genetic polymorphisms of IL4RA, IL13, TNFA, IL1A, and IL5 on the decline of lung function and bronchial hyperresponsiveness in a prospective follow-up study of baker/pastry maker and hairdresser apprentices. METHODS: A total of 351 apprentices were included in the study. We performed skin testing, spirometry, fractional exhaled nitric oxide measurement, and methacholine hyperreactivity testing at the initial visit and during and at the end of the 18-month training period. Gene variants of IL4RA, IL13, TNFA, IL1A, and IL5 were determined in DNA from nasal lavage. RESULTS: IL13 R130Q/IL4RA S478P or IL13 R130Q//IL4RA Q551R were significant predictors of the decrease of forced expiratory volume and forced vital capacity (P ≤ .006). Genotype GG of TNFAG308A was associated with bronchial hyperresponsiveness in the whole population and in nonatopic individuals (90.63% vs 9.38%; odds ratio, 3.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.10-12.83). TNFA GA and IL5 CC and TNFA GA and IL1A CC were 2 epistatic predictors of exhaled nitrogen monoxide decrease during follow-up (P = .02 and P = .004, respectively). The association with TNFA GA and IL1A CC was the most significant in nonatopic bakers (P < .001). CONCLUSION: We evidenced a predicting influence of IL13/IL4RA and TNFA in the early exposure to allergens and irritants that precedes occupational asthma. The significance of the associations in the absence of atopy suggests an influence of the genetics predictors related to inflammatory pathways

Characteristics of HIV-2 and HIV-1/HIV-2 Dually Seropositive Adults in West Africa Presenting for Care and Antiretroviral Therapy: The IeDEA-West Africa HIV-2 Cohort Study.

HIV-2 is endemic in West Africa. There is a lack of evidence-based guidelines on the diagnosis, management and antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV-2 or HIV-1/HIV-2 dual infections. Because of these issues, we designed a West African collaborative cohort for HIV-2 infection within the framework of the International epidemiological Databases to Evaluate AIDS (IeDEA).We collected data on all HIV-2 and HIV-1/HIV-2 dually seropositive patients (both ARV-naive and starting ART) and followed-up in clinical centres in the IeDEA-WA network including a total of 13 clinics in five countries: Benin, Burkina-Faso Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, and Senegal, in the West Africa region.Data was merged for 1,754 patients (56% female), including 1,021 HIV-2 infected patients (551 on ART) and 733 dually seropositive for both HIV-1 and HIV 2 (463 on ART). At ART initiation, the median age of HIV-2 patients was 45.3 years, IQR: (38.3-51.7) and 42.4 years, IQR (37.0-47.3) for dually seropositive patients (p = 0.048). Overall, 16.7% of HIV-2 patients on ART had an advanced clinical stage (WHO IV or CDC-C). The median CD4 count at the ART initiation is 166 cells/mm(3), IQR (83-247) among HIV-2 infected patients and 146 cells/mm(3), IQR (55-249) among dually seropositive patients. Overall, in ART-treated patients, the CD4 count increased 126 cells/mm(3) after 24 months on ART for HIV-2 patients and 169 cells/mm(3) for dually seropositive patients. Of 551 HIV-2 patients on ART, 5.8% died and 10.2% were lost to follow-up during the median time on ART of 2.4 years, IQR (0.7-4.3).This large multi-country study of HIV-2 and HIV-1/HIV-2 dual infection in West Africa suggests that routine clinical care is less than optimal and that management and treatment of HIV-2 could be further informed by ongoing studies and randomized clinical trials in this population