An Epithelial Serine Protease, AgESP, Is Required for Plasmodium Invasion in the Mosquito Anopheles gambiae

Background: Plasmodium parasites need to cross the midgut and salivary gland epithelia to complete their life cycle in the mosquito. However, our understanding of the molecular mechanism and the mosquito genes that participate in this process is still very limited. Methodology/Principal Findings: We identified an Anopheles gambiae epithelial serine protease (AgESP) that is constitutively expressed in the submicrovillar region of mosquito midgut epithelial cells and in the basal side of the salivary glands that is critical for Plasmodium parasites to cross these two epithelial barriers. AgESP silencing greatly reduces Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium falciparum midgut invasion and prevents the transcriptional activation of gelsolin, a key regulator of actin remodeling and a reported Plasmodium agonist. AgESP expression is highly induced in midgut cells invaded by Plasmodium, suggesting that this protease also participates in the apoptotic response to invasion. In salivary gland epithelial cells, AgESP is localized on the basal side–the surface with which sporozoites interact. AgESP expression in the salivary gland is also induced in response to P. berghei and P. falciparum sporozoite invasion, and AgESP silencing significantly reduces the number of sporozoites that invade this organ. Conclusion: Our findings indicate that AgESP is required for Plasmodium parasites to effectively traverse the midgut and salivary gland epithelial barriers. Plasmodium parasites need to modify the actin cytoskeleton of mosquito epithelial cells t

Competency of Anopheles stephensi mysorensis strain for Plasmodium vivax and the role of inhibitory carbohydrates to block its sporogonic cycle

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Despite the abundance of studies conducted on the role of mosquitoes in malaria transmission, the biology and interaction of <it>Plasmodium </it>with its insect host still holds many mysteries. This paper provides the first study to follow the sporogonic cycle of <it>Plasmodium vivax </it>in a wild insecticide-resistant mysorensis strain of <it>Anopheles stephensi</it>, a major vector of vivax malaria in south-eastern Iran. The study subsequently demonstrates that host-parasite sugar binding interactions are critical to the development of this parasite in the salivary glands of its mosquito host. The identity of the receptors or sugars involved was revealed by a receptor "pre-saturation" strategy in which sugars fed to the mosquitoes inhibited normal host-parasite interactions.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p><it>Anopheles stephensi </it>mysorensis mosquitoes were artificially infected with <it>P. vivax </it>by feeding on the blood of gametocytaemic volunteers reporting to local malaria clinics in the Sistan-Baluchistan province of south-eastern Iran. In order to determine the inhibitory effect of carbohydrates on sporogonic development, vector mosquitoes were allowed to ingest blood meals containing both gametocytes and added carbohydrates. The carbohydrates tested were GlcNAc, GalNAc, arabinose, fucose, mannose, lactose, glucose and galactose. Sporogonic development was assessed by survival of the parasite at both the oocyst and sporozoite stages.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Oocyst development was observed among nearly 6% of the fed control mosquitoes but the overall number of mosquitoes exhibiting sporozoite invasion of the salivary glands was 47.5% lower than the number supporting oocysts in their midgut. Of the tested carbohydrates, only arabinose and fucose slightly perturbed the development of <it>P. vivax </it>oocysts at the basal side of the mosquito midgut, and the remaining sugars caused no reductions in oocyst development. Strikingly however, sporozoites were completely absent from the salivary glands of mosquitoes treated with mannose, GalNAc, and lactose.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>The study indicates that <it>An. stephensi </it>in southern Iran has the potential to survive long enough to be re-infected and transmit vivax malaria several times, based on the average adult female longevity (about 30 days) and its gonotrophic cycle (2–3 days) during the malaria transmission season. Certain sugar binding interactions are important for the development of <it>P. vivax </it>sporozoites, and this information may be instrumental for the development of transmission blocking strategies.</p

Investigation of the midgut structure and ultrastructure in Cimex lectularius and Cimex pipistrelli (Hemiptera, Cimicidae)

Cimicidae are temporary ectoparasites, which means that they cannot obtain food continuously. Both Cimex species examined here, Cimex lectularius (Linnaeus 1758) and Cimex pipistrelli (Jenyns 1839), can feed on a non-natal host, C. lectularius from humans on bats, C. pipistrelli on humans, but never naturally. The midgut of C. lectularius and C. pipistrelli is composed of three distinct regions—the anterior midgut (AMG), which has a sack-like shape, the long tube-shaped middle midgut (MMG), and the posterior midgut (PMG). The different ultrastructures of the AMG, MMG, and PMG in both of the species examined suggest that these regions must fulfill different functions in the digestive system. Ultrastructural analysis showed that the AMG fulfills the role of storing food and synthesizing and secreting enzymes, while the MMG is the main organ for the synthesis of enzymes, secretion, and the storage of the reserve material. Additionally, both regions, the AMG and MMG, are involved in water absorption in the digestive system of both Cimex species. The PMG is the part of the midgut in which spherites accumulate. The results of our studies confirm the suggestion of former authors that the structure of the digestive tract of insects is not attributed solely to diet but to the basic adaptation of an ancestor

Trypsin-Like Serine Proteases in Lutzomyia longipalpis – Expression, Activity and Possible Modulation by Leishmania infantum chagasi

Background: Midgut enzymatic activity is one of the obstacles that Leishmania must surpass to succeed in establishing infection. Trypsins are abundant digestive enzymes in most insects. We have previously described two trypsin cDNAs of L. longipalpis: one (Lltryp1) with a bloodmeal induced transcription pattern, the other (Lltryp2) with a constitutive transcription pattern. We have now characterized the expression and activity of trypsin-like proteases of Lutzomyia longipalpis, the main vector of visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. Methodology and Principal Findings: In order to study trypsin expression profiles we produced antibodies against peptides specific for Lltryp1 and Lltryp2. The anti-Lltryp1-peptide antibody revealed a band of 28 kDa between 6 and 48 hours. The anti-Lltryp2 peptide antibody did not evidence any band. When proteinaceous substrates (gelatin, hemoglobin, casein or albumin) were co-polymerized in polyacrylamide gels, insect midguts obtained at 12 hours after feeding showed a unique proteolytic pattern for each substrate. All activity bands were strongly inhibited by TLCK, benzamidine and 4-amino-benzamidine, indicating that they are trypsin-like proteases. The trypsin-like activity was also measured in vitro at different time points after ingestion of blood or blood containing Leishmania infantum chagasi, using the chromogenic substrate BArNA. L. longipalpis females fed on blood infected with L. i. chagasi had lower levels of trypsin activity after 12 and 48 hours than non-infected insects, suggesting that the parasite may have a role in this modulation. Conclusions and Significance: Trypsins are important and abundant digestive enzymes in L. longipalpis. Protein production and enzymatic activity followed previously identified gene expression of a blood modulated trypsin gene. A decrease of enzymatic activity upon the parasite infection, previously detected mostly in Old World vectors, was detected for the first time in the natural vector-parasite pair L. longipalpis-L. i. chagasi

Alpha-COPI Coatomer Protein Is Required for Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Whorl Formation in Mosquito Midgut Epithelial Cells

One of the early events in midgut epithelial cells of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes is the dynamic reorganization of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) whorl structures coincident with the onset of blood meal digestion. Based on our previous studies showing that feeding on an amino acid meal induces TOR signaling in Ae. aegypti, we used proteomics and RNAi to functionally identify midgut epithelial cell proteins that contribute to RER whorl formation.Adult female Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were maintained on sugar alone (unfed), or fed an amino acid meal, and then midgut epithelial cells were analyzed by electron microscopy and protein biochemistry. The size and number of RER whorls in midgut epithelial cells were found to decrease significantly after feeding, and several KDEL-containing proteins were shown to have altered expression levels. LC-MS/MS mass spectrometry was used to analyze midgut microsomal proteins isolated from unfed and amino acid fed mosquitoes, and of the 127 proteins identified, 8 were chosen as candidate whorl forming proteins. Three candidate proteins were COPI coatomer subunits (alpha, beta, beta'), all of which appeared to be present at higher levels in microsomal fractions from unfed mosquitoes. Using RNAi to knockdown alpha-COPI expression, electron microscopy revealed that both the size and number of RER whorls were dramatically reduced in unfed mosquitoes, and moreover, that extended regions of swollen RER were prevalent in fed mosquitoes. Lastly, while a deficiency in alpha-COPI had no effect on early trypsin protein synthesis or secretion 3 hr post blood meal (PBM), expression of late phase proteases at 24 hr PBM was completely blocked.alpha-COPI was found to be required for the formation of RER whorls in midgut epithelial cells of unfed Aa. aegypti mosquitoes, as well as for the expression of late phase midgut proteases

Evaluation of the Human IgG Antibody Response to Aedes albopictus Saliva as a New Specific Biomarker of Exposure to Vector Bites

Aedes-borne viruses like dengue and chikungunya are a major problem in Reunion Island. Assessing exposure to Aedes bites is crucial to estimating the risk of pathogen transmission. Currently, the exposure of populations to Aedes albopictus bites is mainly evaluated by entomological methods which are indirect and difficult to apply on a large scale. Recent findings suggest that evaluation of human antibody responses against arthropod salivary proteins could be useful in assessing exposure to mosquito bites. The results indicate that 88% of the studied population produce IgG to Ae. albopictus saliva antigens in Reunion Island and show that this biomarker can detect different levels of individual exposure. In addition, little cross-reactivity is observed with Aedes aegypti saliva, suggesting that this could be a specific marker for exposure to Aedes albopictus bites. Taken together, these results suggest that antibody responses to saliva could constitute a powerful immuno-epidemiological tool for evaluating exposure to Aedes albopictus and therefore the risk of arbovirus infection

Scabies Mite Peritrophins Are Potential Targets of Human Host Innate Immunity

The gut of most invertebrates is lined by a protective layer of chitin and glycoproteins, often designated as a peritrophic matrix. Previous research suggests that it forms a barrier that may protect the midgut epithelium from abrasive food particles and pathogens. Parasitic invertebrates ingesting vertebrate plasma have evolved additional strategies to protect themselves from hazardous host molecules consumed during feeding. An important part of the immediate defense in vertebrate plasma is complement-mediated killing. The Complement system is a complex network of more than 35 proteins present in human plasma that results in killing of foreign cells including the gut epithelial cells of a feeding parasite. Recently we found that scabies mites, who feed on skin containing plasma, produce several proteins that inhibit human complement within the mite gut. The mites excrete these molecules into the upper epidermis where they presumably also inhibit complement activity. Mite gut antigens that initially trigger the complement cascade have not been identified previously. Obvious possible targets of complement attack within the mite gut could be peritrophins. Our study describes the first peritrophin identified in scabies mites and indicates a possible role in complement activation

Gene expression patterns associated with blood-feeding in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae

BACKGROUND: Blood feeding, or hematophagy, is a behavior exhibited by female mosquitoes required both for reproduction and for transmission of pathogens. We determined the expression patterns of 3,068 ESTs, representing ~2,000 unique gene transcripts using cDNA microarrays in adult female Anopheles gambiae at selected times during the first two days following blood ingestion, at 5 and 30 min during a 40 minute blood meal and at 0, 1, 3, 5, 12, 16, 24 and 48 hours after completion of the blood meal and compared their expression to transcript levels in mosquitoes with access only to a sugar solution. RESULTS: In blood-fed mosquitoes, 413 unique transcripts, approximately 25% of the total, were expressed at least two-fold above or below their levels in the sugar-fed mosquitoes, at one or more time points. These differentially expressed gene products were clustered using k-means clustering into Early Genes, Middle Genes, and Late Genes, containing 144, 130, and 139 unique transcripts, respectively. Several genes from each group were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR in order to validate the microarray results. CONCLUSION: The expression patterns and annotation of the genes in these three groups (Early, Middle, and Late genes) are discussed in the context of female mosquitoes' physiological responses to blood feeding, including blood digestion, peritrophic matrix formation, egg development, and immunity

Humoral Response to the Anopheles gambiae Salivary Protein gSG6: A Serological Indicator of Exposure to Afrotropical Malaria Vectors

Salivary proteins injected by blood feeding arthropods into their hosts evoke a saliva-specific humoral response which can be useful to evaluate exposure to bites of disease vectors. However, saliva of hematophagous arthropods is a complex cocktail of bioactive factors and its use in immunoassays can be misleading because of potential cross-reactivity to other antigens. Toward the development of a serological marker of exposure to Afrotropical malaria vectors we expressed the Anopheles gambiae gSG6, a small anopheline-specific salivary protein, and we measured the anti-gSG6 IgG response in individuals from a malaria hyperendemic area of Burkina Faso, West Africa. The gSG6 protein was immunogenic and anti-gSG6 IgG levels and/or prevalence increased in exposed individuals during the malaria transmission/rainy season. Moreover, this response dropped during the intervening low transmission/dry season, suggesting it is sensitive enough to detect variation in vector density. Members of the Fulani ethnic group showed higher anti-gSG6 IgG response as compared to Mossi, a result consistent with the stronger immune reactivity reported in this group. Remarkably, anti-gSG6 IgG levels among responders were high in children and gradually declined with age. This unusual pattern, opposite to the one observed with Plasmodium antigens, is compatible with a progressive desensitization to mosquito saliva and may be linked to the continued exposure to bites of anopheline mosquitoes. Overall, the humoral anti-gSG6 IgG response appears a reliable serological indicator of exposure to bites of the main African malaria vectors (An. gambiae, Anopheles arabiensis and, possibly, Anopheles funestus) and it may be exploited for malaria epidemiological studies, development of risk maps and evaluation of anti-vector measures. In addition, the gSG6 protein may represent a powerful model system to get a deeper understanding of molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the immune tolerance and progressive desensitization to insect salivary allergens