Urban-rural differences in tobacco product availability in food retailers, United States, 2017

Purpose: Tobacco use prevalence is higher in rural compared to urban settings, possibly due to differences in tobacco availability, including the option to purchase food and other essential items in stores that do not sell tobacco (tobacco-free food retailers). The goal of this research is to determine whether tobacco-free food retailer availability varies by urbanicity/rurality. Methods: Using the 2017 National Establishment Time-Series database, we identified food retailers across all census tracts containing food retailers in the United States (n = 66,053). We used multivariable logistic and linear regression models to test whether tobacco-free food retailer availability varied across 4-levels of census tract urbanicity/rurality (urban, suburban, large town, and small town/rural) for 2 outcomes: (1) the presence of at least 1 tobacco-free food retailer and (2) the percent of all food retailers that were tobacco-free. Findings: Compared to urban core census tracts, suburban census tracts had a lower odds (aOR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.73, 0.81) of having at least 1 tobacco-free food retailer, while small town/rural census tracts had greater odds (aOR = 1.23, 95% CI = 1.15, 1.32). Suburban census tracts (B = –2.29, P <.001) and large town census tracts (B = –1.90, P <.001) also had a lower percentage of tobacco-free food retailers compared to urban census tracts. Conclusions: Compared to urban cores, tobacco-free food retailers were less prevalent in suburban and large town areas, though similarly or slightly more available in rural areas. Future research should assess whether these differences depend on varying store types

Associations of County Tobacco Retailer Availability With U.S. Adult Smoking Behaviors, 2014–2015

Introduction: Greater availability of tobacco product retailers in an area may be associated with smoking behaviors, and the majority of people who smoke purchase their cigarettes at gas stations and convenience stores. This cross-sectional study investigates the associations of overall tobacco retailer density and gas/convenience density with adult smoking behaviors. Methods: This study built a list of tobacco retailers in 2014 and calculated the county-level number of retailers per 1,000 people. Individual-level smoking behavior data were drawn from the 2014–2015 Tobacco Use Supplement for a sample of adults (n=88,850) residing in metropolitan counties across the U.S. General estimating equation models were fit to investigate the associations between retailer density and cigarette smoking behaviors (smoking status, quit attempt, quit length). Analyses were conducted in 2020. Results: A greater number of tobacco retailers (AOR=1.63, 95% CI=1.35, 1.96) and gas stations and convenience stores (AOR=3.29, 95% CI=2.39, 4.52) per 1,000 people were each associated with a higher odds of a respondent smoking every day than the odds of a respondent not smoking. In addition, both measures were associated with a higher odds of a respondent being an every-day than being a some-day smoker. Associations for gas/convenience density were similar in models that additionally controlled for other tobacco retailers (excluding gas/convenience). Study results did not support associations between retailer density and cessation. Conclusions: Tobacco retailer density, especially gas/convenience density, is correlated with daily smoking, the most harmful tobacco use behavior. Calculating tobacco retailer density using gas/convenience stores may be a feasible proxy for overall tobacco retailer density

Associations of tobacco retailer availability with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease related hospital outcomes, United States, 2014

There are associations between tobacco retailer density and smoking behaviors, but little is known about whether places with more tobacco retailers have more smoking-related health problems. Using cross-sectional data from 2014, we investigated the relationships between tobacco retailer density and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) related outcomes in a sample of 1510 counties across the United States. Higher retailer density was associated with a 19% (IRR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.12–1.27) higher COPD-related hospital discharge rate and 30% (IRR, 1.30; 95% CI 1.21–1.39) higher total COPD-related hospital costs per population. The tobacco retailer environment may be an important target for reducing smoking-related health burdens and costs

Sociodemographic inequities in tobacco retailer density: Do neighboring places matter?

We apply a spatial perspective to measure the extent to which the 2018 U.S. racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic composition of census tracts were each associated with tobacco retailer density within a tract and in its neighboring tracts (n = 71,409). A 10-percentage point increase in the Black population was associated with 0.07 (p < 0.05) more retailers per square mile within a focal tract and 0.35 (p < 0.001) more retailers per square mile in its neighbors on average. A greater percent of Hispanic/Latino residents was associated with more retailers per square mile, both within a focal tract (b = 0.95, p < 0.001) and in its neighbors 0.39 (p < 0.001). Inverse associations were observed for percent white. We also observed inequities by socioeconomic status. The overall magnitude of inequities may be underestimated if the spatial dependence between focal tracts and their neighbors are not taken into consideration. Policymakers should prioritize interconnected geographic areas experiencing high racialized and socioeconomic segregation when designing and implementing policies to reduce retail tobacco product availability

Neighborhood Inequities in Tobacco Retailer Density and the Presence of Tobacco-Selling Pharmacies and Tobacco Shops

Studies document inequitable tobacco retailer density by neighborhood sociodemographics, but these findings may not be robust to different density measures. Policies to reduce density may be less equitable depending on how the presence of store types differs by neighborhood characteristics. We built a 2018 list of probable tobacco retailers in the United States and calculated four measures of density for all census tracts (N = 71,495), including total count, and number of retailers per 1,000 people, square mile, and kilometers of roadway. We fit multivariable regression models testing associations between each density measure and tract-level sociodemographics. We fit logistic regression models testing associations between sociodemographics and the presence of a tobacco-selling pharmacy or tobacco shop. Across all measures, tracts with a greater percentage of residents living below 150% of the federal poverty level (FPL) had higher density. A higher percentage of Black residents, Hispanic or Latino residents, and vacant housing was inconsistently associated with density across measures. Neighborhoods with a greater percentage of Black residents had a lower odds of having a pharmacy (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.96, 95% confidence interval [CI; 0.95, 0.97]) and tobacco shop (aOR = 0.87, CI [0.86, 0.89]), while those with a greater percentage of residents living below 150% FPL had greater odds of having a tobacco shop (aOR = 1.18, CI [1.16, 1.20]). Researchers and policymakers should consider how various measures of retailer density may capture different aspects of the environment. Furthermore, there may be an inequitable impact of retailer-specific policies on tobacco availability

Trends in the Number and Type of Tobacco Product Retailers, United States, 2000-2017

Introduction: Tobacco product retailers provide access to tobacco products and exposure to tobacco marketing. Without a national tobacco retailer licensing system in the United States, there are no estimates of national trends in tobacco retailer numbers and store type over time. Methods: We developed a protocol to identify likely tobacco retailers across the United States between 2000 and 2017 using industry codes and retailer names in the annual National Establishment Time Series (NETS) database. We calculated annual counts of tobacco retailers in seven store-type categories and annual numbers of tobacco retailers that opened and closed. Results: We estimate that there were 317 492 tobacco product retailers in 2000; the number grew to 412 536 in 2009 before falling to 356 074 in 2017, for a net 12% increase overall. Gas/convenience stores and grocery stores accounted for more than two thirds of all retailers. On average, new openings accounted for 8.0% of the total retailers, whereas 7.3% of retailers closed or stopped selling tobacco each year, with stronger market volatility following the Great Recession. Since 2011, there was a disproportionate reduction in tobacco-selling pharmacies and an increase in both tobacco-specialty shops and tobacco-selling discount stores. Conclusions: During two decades when smoking declined, tobacco retailer availability increased in the United States. The economic climate, corporate and public policies, and new tobacco products may all contribute to trends in tobacco retailer availability. State and local jurisdictions considering tobacco retailer policies may find retailer trend information useful for forecasting or evaluating potential policy impacts. Implications: This study provides historic data tracking tobacco retailers in the United States between 2000 and 2017, documenting trends that unfolded as the general economic market contracted and grew, with greater regulation of the tobacco retailer environment. These data provide a context for better understanding future changes in the tobacco retailer market. In addition, the protocol established in this study could be applied in any US-based location without tobacco retailer licensing to allow identification of stores and tracking of trends

Spectroscopic signature of surface states and bunching of bulk subbands in topological insulator (Bi0.4Sb0.6)2Te3 thin films

High-quality thin films of the topological insulator (Bi0.4Sb0.6)2Te3 have been deposited on SrTiO3 (111) by molecular beam epitaxy. Their electronic structure was investigated by in situ angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy and in situ scanning tunneling spectroscopy. The experimental results reveal striking similarities with relativistic ab initio tight-binding calculations. We find that ultrathin slabs of the three-dimensional topological insulator (Bi0.4Sb0.6)2Te3 display topological surface states, surface states with large weight on the outermost Te atomic layer, and dispersive bulk energy levels that are quantized. We observe that the bandwidth of the bulk levels is strongly reduced. These bunched bulk states as well as the surface states give rise to strong peaks in the local density of states

Canopy spectral invariants, Part 2: Application to classification of forest types from hyperspectral data

Many studies have been conducted to demonstrate the ability of hyperspectral data to discriminate plant dominant species. Most of them have employed the use of empirically based techniques, which are site specific, requires some initial training based on characteristics of known leaf and/or canopy spectra and therefore may not be extendable to operational use or adapted to changing or unknown land cover. In this paper we propose a physically based approach for separation of dominant forest type using hyperspectral data. The radiative transfer theory of canopy spectral invariants underlies the approach, which facilitates parameterization of the canopy reflectance in terms of the leaf spectral scattering and two spectrally invariant and structurally varying variables—recollision and directional escape probabilities. The methodology is based on the idea of retrieving spectrally invariant parameters from hyperspectral data first, and then relating their values to structural characteristics of three-dimensional canopy structure