Interorganizational Trust in Business to Business E-Commerce

Most previous research in the Information Systems discipline focused on information systems and technology, e-commerce applications such as Inter-Organizational Systems (IOSs), competitive advantages, and security issues. The emphasis on IOSs' gave rise to concerns about Inter-Organizational Relationships (IORs), as trading partners became aware of the social-political factors that affected their relationships. IOSs involve the sharing of e-commerce applications in different locations. When this study was initiated in 1997, universal standards were not fully developed. This posed a security concern for Small-Medium-Enterprises, particularly in Australia and New Zealand. This study examines the importance of inter-organizational trust (trading partner trust) in ecommerce participation. The objective of this study is to empirically examine the importance of interorganizational- trust in e-commerce participation. Despite the acknowledged importance of trust, only limited research has examined the role of trust among trading partners in business-to-business e-commerce, when this study was initiated in 1997. As the participation in e-commerce increased, the need for trust among trading partners became more pertinent in business-to-business e-commerce. Exploratory research was carried out via three case studies in the automotive industry. The automotive industry was selected as a critical and typical case for Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) via Value-Added-Networks, and the findings emphasized on the importance of interorganizational trust in e-commerce participation. The exploratory study, together with a literature review, provided the theoretical foundations for the development of the conceptual model. Theories from multiple disciplines including the marketing, management, sociology, information systems and e-commerce were applied in the conceptual model. The research question developed for this study is: How does inter-organizational trust (trading partner trust) influence the perception of ecommerce benefits and risks of e-commerce, thus influencing the extent of participation in ecommerce? The conceptual model was then tested using a multiple-case-study research strategy that aimed to solicit qualitative and in-depth understanding of inter-organizational trust in the context of business-tobusiness e-commerce. Ten organizations from a cross-industry selection that formed four bi-directional dyads and two uni-directional dyads participated in the study. They included a public sector organization involved in customs clearance; their Internet service provider; a customs agent (broker); an importer; two organizations in the computer and data communications industry; two organizations in the telecommunications industry; and two organizations in the automotive industry. The primary unit of analysis in this study is the uni-directional dyad. The case study participants included e-commerce coordinators, IT managers, and senior executives involved in e-commerce. In addition, e-commerce applications, existing documents, and standards contributed to secondary data sources. For example, trading partner agreements, organizational charts, web sites, and internal security policies gave evidence of the organizations' best business practices and background information on the organization and their products. The findings of the four bi-directional dyads (eight organizations) and the two uni-directional dyads indicated that trust was important for participation in e-commerce. The findings differed by the type of e-commerce application used and the industry. For example, organizations that developed extranet applications had only one trading party (the supplier) undertaking the implementation process. Suppliers were involved in the installation of their websites that provided product information. In addition, suppliers had to train their buyers to use extranet applications. The products consisted of many different parts, (such as data communications, computers and telecommunications) which made the task of placing an order complex. These inter-organizational dyads (Cisco-Compaq NZ, and Siemens-Telecom NZ) experienced relational risks arising from the need to establish trust among their trading partners. On the other hand, Avery Ford NZ and Toyota NZ applied intranet applications and Internet-based EDI for routine orders between the manufacturers and suppliers. Smaller organizations such as the customs broker and the importer experienced a smooth e-commerce adoption due to their application "Trade Manager" which was not connected to the Internet. The study contributes to theory, practice and research in the following ways: First, rather than inferring characteristics of e-commerce adoption from a technical and economic background, this study examined behavioral characteristics of trading partners in business-to-business ecommerce from theories in multi-disciplines. The primary emphasis of prior research was on transaction economics, its competitive advantages and/or external pressure (socio-political). This study focused on the importance of inter-organizational trust in e-commerce participation. The findings of the study led to the development of a model of inter-organizational trust within bi-directional dyads in e-commerce participation. Second, the study contributed to practice as it increased the awareness of e-commerce practitioners, who will check the trust behaviors of themselves and that of their trading partners. Trading partners will be better able to select and evaluate trust and security-based mechanisms in e-commerce, thus protecting themselves against opportunistic behaviors of their trading partners. Third, the study contributed to research as it paved the way for longitudinal studies. This study only took a micro-perspective of inter-organizational trust within dyadic relationships as it was intended to be an exploratory study. Further research should extensively test the model using a field survey with business-to-business e-commerce organizations.This thesis aims to empirically examine the role of inter-organizational trust (trading partner trust) in e-commerce participation. By doing so, trust behaviors in business relationships were identified. The findings from ten organizations that formed four bi-directional dyads and two uni-directional dyads contributed to a model of inter-organizational trust within bi-directional dyads. The model identified the development of inter-organizational trust in three stages and identified trust behaviors and characteristics involved in the gradual development of trust from one stage to the next stage, thus providing an awareness of trust behaviors that trading partners need to develop. For example competence trust emphasized on an individual or team's ability and skills to operate e-commerce system and applications (i.e. is at a technical level). Predictability trust examined the reflections and interpersonal experiences of the trading partners based on past experiences, and a consistency of trading partner behaviors. Goodwill trust examined the institutional (i.e. the organization's image, reputation that determines the strategic benefits). Overall, the findings indicated that trust in inter-organizational relationships clearly matter

The wear characteristics of cemented tungsten carbide tools in machining oil palm empty fruit bunch particleboard

A series of machining experiments on the Oil Palm Empty-Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) particle board were carried out using tungsten carbide tools, to ascertain the predominant mechanism of tool wear when machining this material. The experiments were carried out using a high speed lathe, which machined a rotating disc of the OPEFB particle board. It was found that mechanical abrasion and micro-fracture was the primary mode of tool failure when machining OPEFB particle board. The low cutting temperature recorded during the machining experiments provides compelling evidence to eliminate any significant effect of electrochemical and oxidation mechanisms on the wear of tungsten carbide tools. Therefore, the wear of cemented tungsten carbide tools when machining OPEFB particle board was predominantly by mechanical wear mechanisms. The results of this study implies that the high tool wear experienced during the machining of OPEFB particle board, may limit its use in the manufacture of value-added products, unless the boards are priced competitively in the market

Evaluating the machining characteristics of oil palm lumber

A series of machining experiments were carried out using a CNC multi-function machine, to evaluate the sawing, routing and boring as well as the tool wearing properties of the oil palm lumber. The result found that the resultant machined surface of the oil palm lumber of higher densities (>500 kg m-3) is comparable to that of solid Rubberwood. Further, it was also found that the machining properties of oil palm lumber was markedly improved when machining at high cutting speeds, which in turn significantly reduced the incidence of machining defects such as fiber tear out and chip out. However, with higher cutting speeds, accelerated tool wear is inevitable and coupled with the fact that the oil palm lumber is markedly abrasive due to its high silica content, the resulting tooling cost is a concern. Hence, the development of new tooling for the machining oil palm lumber is recommended. Despite this shortcoming, the lower cost and environmental friendly reputation of the oil palm lumber should encourage wider utilization of the material in the furniture industry

Three-Dimensional Simulations of Massive Stars: II. Age Dependence

We present 3D full star simulations, reaching up to 90% of the total stellar radius, for three $7M_\odot$ stars of different ages (ZAMS, midMS and TAMS). A comparison with several theoretical prescriptions shows the generation spectra for all three ages are dominated by convective plumes. Two distinct overshooting layers are observed, with most plumes stopped within the layer situated directly above the convective boundary (CB); overshooting to the second, deeper layer becomes increasingly more infrequent with stellar age. Internal gravity wave (IGW) propagation is significantly impacted in the midMS and TAMS models as a result of some IGWs getting trapped within their Brunt-V\"{a}is\"{a}l\"{a} frequency spikes. A fundamental change in the wave structure across radius is also observed, driven by the effect of density stratification on IGW propagation causing waves to become evanescent within the radiative zone, with older stars being affected more strongly. We find that the steepness of the frequency spectrum at the surface increases from ZAMS to the older models, with older stars also showing more modes in their spectra.Comment: 24 pages, 14 figures / Accepted at Ap

Fully compressible simulations of waves and core convection in main-sequence stars

Context. Recent, nonlinear simulations of wave generation and propagation in full-star models have been carried out in the anelastic approximation using spectral methods. Although it makes long time steps possible, this approach excludes the physics of sound waves completely and rather high artificial viscosity and thermal diffusivity are needed for numerical stability. Direct comparison with observations is thus limited. Aims. We explore the capabilities of our compressible multidimensional hydrodynamics code SLH to simulate stellar oscillations. Methods. We compare some fundamental properties of internal gravity and pressure waves in 2D SLH simulations to linear wave theory using two test cases: (1) an interval gravity wave packet in the Boussinesq limit and (2) a realistic $3\mathrm{M}_\odot$ stellar model with a convective core and a radiative envelope. Oscillation properties of the stellar model are also discussed in the context of observations. Results. Our tests show that specialized low-Mach techniques are necessary when simulating oscillations in stellar interiors. Basic properties of internal gravity and pressure waves in our simulations are in good agreement with linear wave theory. As compared to anelastic simulations of the same stellar model, we can follow internal gravity waves of much lower frequencies. The temporal frequency spectra of velocity and temperature are flat and compatible with observed spectra of massive stars. Conclusion. The low-Mach compressible approach to hydrodynamical simulations of stellar oscillations is promising. Our simulations are less dissipative and require less luminosity boosting than comparable spectral simulations. The fully-compressible approach allows the coupling of gravity and pressure waves to be studied too.Comment: Accepted for publication in A&

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia Australasian consensus practice statement

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is the most common haematological malignancy in Australia and New Zealand (ANZ). Considerable changes to diagnostic and management algorithms have occurred within the last decade. The availability of next-generation sequencing and measurable residual disease assessment by flow cytometry allow for advanced prognostication and response assessments. Novel therapies, including inhibitors of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTKi) and B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2) inhibitors, have transformed the treatment landscape for both treatment-naïve and relapsed/refractory disease, particularly for patients with high-risk genetic aberrations. Recommendations regarding appropriate supportive management continue to evolve, and special considerations are required for patients with CLL with respect to the global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The unique funding and treatment environments in Australasia highlight the need for specific local guidance with respect to the investigation and management of CLL. This consensus practice statement was developed by a broadly representative group of ANZ experts in CLL with endorsement by peak haematology bodies, with a view to providing this standardised guidance