AtGSTU19 and AtGSTU24 as Moderators of the Response of Arabidopsis thaliana to Turnip mosaic virus

Plants produce glutathione as a response to the intercellular redox state. Glutathione actively participates in the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent signaling pathway, especially under biotic stress conditions. Most of the glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are induced in cells during the defense response of plants not only through highly specific glutathione-binding abilities but also by participating in the signaling function. The tau class of GSTs has been reported to be induced as a response under stress conditions. Although several studies have focused on the role of the tau class of GSTs in plant–pathogen interactions, knowledge about their contribution to the response to virus inoculation is still inadequate. Therefore, in this study, the response of Atgstu19 and Atgstu24 knockout mutants to mechanical inoculation of Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) was examined. The systemic infection of TuMV was more dynamically promoted in Atgstu19 mutants than in wild-type (Col-0) plants, suggesting the role of GSTU19 in TuMV resistance. However, Atgstu24 mutants displayed virus limitation and downregulation of the relative expression of TuMV capsid protein, accompanied rarely by TuMV particles only in vacuoles, and ultrastructural analyses of inoculated leaves revealed the lack of virus cytoplasmic inclusions. These findings indicated that Atgstu24 mutants displayed a resistance-like reaction to TuMV, suggesting that GSTU24 may suppress the plant resistance. In addition, these findings confirmed that GSTU1 and GSTU24 are induced and contribute to the susceptible reaction to TuMV in the Atgstu19–TuMV interaction. However, the upregulation of GSTU19 and GSTU13 highly correlated with virus limitation in the resistance-like reaction in the Atgstu24–TuMV interaction. Furthermore, the highly dynamic upregulation of GST and glutathione reductase (GR) activities resulted in significant induction (between 1 and 14 days post inoculation [dpi]) of the total glutathione pool (GSH + GSSG) in response to TuMV, which was accompanied by the distribution of active glutathione in plant cells. On the contrary, in Atgstu19, which is susceptible to TuMV interaction, upregulation of GST and GR activity only up to 7 dpi symptom development was reported, which resulted in the induction of the total glutathione pool between 1 and 3 dpi. These observations indicated that GSTU19 and GSTU24 are important factors in modulating the response to TuMV in Arabidopsis thaliana. Moreover, it was clear that glutathione is an important component of the regulatory network in resistance and susceptible response of A. thaliana to TuMV. These results help achieve a better understanding of the mechanisms regulating the Arabidopsis–TuMV pathosystem

La réalisation des actes de parole dans les textes usuels sur l'exemple des annonces matrimoniales

They are representatives (a glorification and doubts), directives (a request, questions, an encouragement and a temptation, an invitation, an advice, a prohibition), commissives (a promise and an obligation), expressives (a thanks, a greeting) and declarations. Thanks to them reaching the goal of persuasion: coming into a contact between sender and recipient becomes possible

Ultrastructural effects of PVYNTN infection of <em>Capsicum annuum</em> L. cv. Yolo Wonder generative organs; a first step in describing seed transmission

Potato virus Y NTN (PVYNTN), a member of the family Potyviridae, is one of the most important plant viruses. Despite common occurrence of seed transmission process in the Potyviridae, the number or routes of virion entry into seeds are still unclear. Embryos could probably be infected either through host embryogenesis processes or via infection of reproductive tissues, therefore both processes of virus transmission in seeds and pollen grains are likely to be related. Infection by PVY has been studied in detail in host vegetative organs. We investigated, for the first time the impact of infection by the necrotic strain of PVY on Capsicum annuum reproductive organs. We found PVYNTN particles inside C. annuum pollen grains and on the exine surfaces, and PVY epitopes were also found in pollen tubes. We postulate that the male gametophyte in C. annuum could be a source of PVY infection, which may have significance in self-pollinated hosts. We also demonstrated that PVYNTN particles could be detected inside C. annuum seeds on embryo surfaces, while particles and Potyvirus inclusion bodies were observed in endothelium layers. These were mainly detected inside ovarian tissues, that is, in the ovular integuments and nucelli. Changes in both gametophytes strongly indicate that generative organs were a source of PVYNTN infection. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that in C. annuum, PVY was transmitted vertically via seeds

Ultrastructural effects of PVYNTN infection of Capsicum annuum L. cv. Yolo Wonder generative organs; a first step in describing seed transmission

Potato virus Y NTN (PVYNTN), a member of the family Potyviridae, is one of the most important plant viruses. Despite common occurrence of seed transmission process in the Potyviridae, the number or routes of virion entry into seeds are still unclear. Embryos could probably be infected either through host embryogenesis processes or via infection of reproductive tissues, therefore both processes of virus transmission in seeds and pollen grains are likely to be related. Infection by PVY has been studied in detail in host vegetative organs. We investigated, for the first time the impact of infection by the necrotic strain of PVY on Capsicum annuum reproductive organs. We found PVYNTN particles inside C. annuum pollen grains and on the exine surfaces, and PVY epitopes were also found in pollen tubes. We postulate that the male gametophyte in C. annuum could be a source of PVY infection, which may have significance in self-pollinated hosts. We also demonstrated that PVYNTN particles could be detected inside C. annuum seeds on embryo surfaces, while particles and Potyvirus inclusion bodies were observed in endothelium layers. These were mainly detected inside ovarian tissues, that is, in the ovular integuments and nucelli. Changes in both gametophytes strongly indicate that generative organs were a source of PVYNTN infection. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that in C. annuum, PVY was transmitted vertically via seeds

Among matrimonial announcements a full range of acts of speech can be encountered at

They are representatives (a glorification and doubts), directives (a request, questions, an encouragement and a temptation, an invitation, an advice, a prohibition), commissives (a promise and an obligation), expressives (a thanks, a greeting) and declarations. Thanks to them reaching the goal of persuasion: coming into a contact between sender and recipient becomes possible

Chosen problems of health policy in Poland

Autorka przedstawia główne problemy polityki zdrowotnej w szerszym kontekście polityki społecznej. Przywołuje argumenty wskazujące, że rozwiązywanie problemów zdrowotnych może być mało skuteczne bez rozwiązywania innych problemów społecznych, ale też trudno jest rozwiązywać wiele problemów społecznych bez rozwiązywania problemów zdrowotnych. Po omówieniu pojęcia polityki zdrowotnej, jej celów i zasad oraz uwarunkowań autorka charakteryzuje główne problemy dotyczące wybranych instrumentów polityki zdrowotnej: ekonomicznych, prawnych, organizacyjnych i kadrowych. Artykuł kończy się rekomendacjami wskazującymi przede wszystkim na konieczność zapewnienia kompleksowych działań, zwiększenia roli podstawowej opieki zdrowotnej i lekarza pierwszego kontaktu, poprawy opieki zdrowotnej dla grup szczególnie zagrożonych, przede wszystkim dzieci i młodzieży oraz ludzi starych.The author presents crucial problems of health policy in a broad context of social policy. She argues that solving health problems may prove insufficient without solving other social problems, though it may also be difficult to solve broader social problems without solving the problem of poor health. After discussing the concept of health policy, its aims, principles and determinants, the author characterises basic problems of chosen health policy instruments: economic, legal, organizational and human resources. The text ends with recommendations demanding comprehensive services, increasing the role of basic medical services and a family doctor as well as an improvement of health care for the most endangered groups, such as children and youth and old people