Internally Displaced Persons: Ordeals and Analyses of the Possible Regimes of Legal Protection Frameworks

This present global community is complicated because of anxiety and uncertainty. It is thoroughly interconnected yet intricately partitioned. Pivotally, one could argue that the centrality to this global anxiety is identity and belonging. People want to identify with and belong to a political system, territory, and culture. It seems that there is a present world that mirrors the political emergence of the interwar period that had nationalism on the rise. There is hostility to non-citizens globally, whether as refugees, internally displaced peoples (IDPs), or immigrants seeking to join new political communities. This Article explains the difficulties that ensue from being tagged “an internally displaced person” and explains some specific human rights violations that occur during internal displacement. Some of those violations are economic displacement, cultural displacement, a consistent astronomical rise in external displacement (refugeehood), and the effacement of the dignity to “belong” to a society. This Article gives recommendations on the possible legal frameworks of protection that states could adopt to protect their displaced citizens because states bear the first responsibility for internal displacement, not the international community, which arguably has a secondary responsibility to protect IDPs when states are unwilling to protect them. This Article compares the IDP legal regimes in Africa—the Nigerian Draft National Policy on IDPs and The Kenyan IDP statute. It determines whether a statute or policy best answers the dilemma of an appropriate protection mechanism for IDPs. It concludes that choosing an IDP legal regime is not as important as the political will to implement the regime because a legal regime of protection is dead on arrival without implementation

Developing a mechanistic model for flow through a perforated plate with application to screening of particulate materials

Screening in mineral processing is the practice of separating granulated ore materials into multiple particle size fractions, and is employed in most mineral processing plants. Models of screening performance have been developed previously with the aim of improving process efficiency. Different methods have been used, such as physical modelling, empirical modelling, and mathematical modelling including the discrete element method (DEM). These methods have major limitations in practice, and experimental data to validate the models have been difficult to obtain. Currently, the design and scale-up of screens still relies on rules of thumb and empirical factor methods rather than a fundamentally based understanding of the behaviour of the granular system. To go beyond the current state-of-the-art in screen modelling requires a clear understanding of the particle motion along a dynamic (vibrating) inclined plane. Central to this understanding is the notion that granular systems exhibit a unique rheology that is not observed in fluids; i.e. neither Newtonian nor non-Newtonian. It is thus imperative to fully quantify the granular rheology, which is determined by the depth of the particle bed along the screen, the solids concentration, and the average velocity of the granular avalanche on the screen. The concept of granular rheology is important. Existing empirical models of vibrating screens tend to be extremely dependent on boundary conditions of a particular machine design. The concept of granular rheology is important because, akin to fluid flow, granular flow exhibits different flow regimes depending on the extent of energy input in the system. This work employed DEM to quantify the granular rheology of particles moving along a vibrating inclined screen in order to begin the development of a phenomenological model of screening. The model extends the visco-plastic rheology formation of Pouliquen et al. (2006) to capture the kinetic and turbulent stresses obtained in granular flow on an inclined vibrating screen. In general, DEM was employed to develop a mechanistic model of screening which includes a description of the rheology of granular flow on a vibrating screen. Microscopic properties of granular flow were used in DEM to simulate screening of particulate materials. Granular mixtures of two particle constituents (3 mm and 5 mm) were simulated on an inclined vibrating screen of 3.5 mm apertures. For the base case, frequency and amplitude are 4 Hz and 1 mm, respectively. While microscopic properties were employed for the simulation, the properties extracted from the simulations are macroscopic fields which are consistent with the continuum equations of mass, momentum and energy balance. From the continuum equations, a micro-macro transition method called the coarse-graining approach was employed to obtain the volume fraction and the tangential velocity as a function of the depth of flow along the inclined surface. This approach is suitable for this work because the produced fields satisfy the equations of continuum mechanics; even near the base of the flow. The continuum analysis of the flowing layer reveals a coexistence of flow regimes- (i) quasi-static, (ii) dense (liquid-like), and (iii) inertial. The regimes are consistent with the measured solids concentrations spanning these regimes on inclined vibrating screens. The quasi-static regime is dominated by frictional stress and corresponds to low inertial number (I). Beyond the quasi-static regime, the frictional stress chains break and the collisional-kinetic and turbulent stress begin to dominate. The variation of the effective frictional coefficient with the inertial number (I) characterises the flow. Finally, an effective frictional coefficient model that is based on frictional, collisionalkinetic and turbulent stress was developed. Data analyses for this model were done at a steady flow in the base case where a coexistence of three flow regimes were observed. It was observed that each regime of flow is dominated by corresponding shear stresses. While the quasi-static regime is dominated by frictional stress, the kinetic and the inertial regimes are dominated by kinetic and turbulent shear stresses, respectively. This model was tested by varying the intensity of vibration in the base case and it was observed that at higher frequencies and amplitudes, the quasi-static regime gradually disappeared. Furthermore, the inertial number at which transition occurs to different regimes varies in response to the intensity of vibration. This is an important step in developing a phenomenological model of screening. The model presents a fundamental understanding of the mechanisms governing transport of granular matter on an inclined vibrating screen

Auroral radio absorption:modelling and prediction

Energetic particle precipitation with (>keV) energetic electrons from closed field lines and (>MeV) protons from the solar wind are responsible for enhanced high frequency radiowave absorption in the high latitude ionosphere. Measuring the propagation of radio waves through the ionosphere has been utilised for investigating particle precipitation into the upper atmosphere. Although various methods and models previously proposed for auroral and polar cap absorptions have significantly contributed to our knowledge, there are progressive efforts to improve these models as a result of improved understanding of already made assumptions, development of more efficient equipment and availability of real-time data. This study seeks to contribute to this field. The method utilised combines data from ground-based imaging riometer during solar cycle 23 (1996-2009) and solar wind parameters measured at the L1 point between the Earth and Sun to provide empirical relationship as the basis for a statistical model of auroral absorption. The variation of cosmic noise absorption (CNA) has been modelled using the Akasofu epsilon parameter which characterises the energy transfer between the solar wind and the magnetosphere. The result shows that the absorption model based on the epsilon parameter is reliable for periods with low to moderate solar activity but breaks down during periods of high solar activity such as solar flare and interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs). Hence, separate models for ICME and flare induced absorptions are produced. The modelled results have been compared with IRIS data. On ICME absorption, key observation shows that absorption associated with ICMEs exhibits different character depending on ICME start times. ICMEs were categorised into day time events (solar zenith of riometer station _ _ 80_) and as night time events (_ _ 100_). Differing absorption signatures were observed for day and night ICME events. This work ranked various solar wind parameters to obtain the best coupling parameter for day and night time absorption. For example, day time ICME model is based on solar wind dynamic pressure and V Bz, while night time ICME model is based on Bz and nV 3. In the case of modelling of solar flare induced absorption, the magnitude and duration of absorption is seen to be dependent on different classes of solar flares. Properties of solar flare such as the rise time, the maximum intensity and decay time were used as the building block of the flare model. Comparing ICME induced absorption with absorption induced by solar flares, it was observed that ICME induced absorption is seen to have longer duration (_ of hours) and stronger magnitude than those associated with solar flares (_ of minutes)

Potential contribution of solar thermal power to electricity supply in Northern Nigeria

Energy is an essential requirement for a reasonable socio economic development in a country; however, its provision depends on availability of energy sources and the require d investment. Nigeria possesses abundant deposits of energy sources ranging from fossil fuel to renewable energy sources. Over the years, the level of production of energy from these sources has been considerably low. The present level of electricity supply is short of demand and the supply is not reliable. As the country is experiencing rapid growth in population, adequate energy provision is necessary for corresponding level of production and development. The need for sustainable and renewable sources of energy has emerged globally owing to environmental issues associated with the use of conventional fuel. In order to consider the possibility of harnessing the solar energy resource in northern Nigeria, this study explores the potential contribution of the adoption of Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technology to the energy system in the far northern States of Nigeria. These States are chosen because the region lies within a high sunshine belt and thus having a daily average DNI of 6.2 KWh/m2 / day and an annual average of 2320 KWh/m2/yr. The annual average DNI in the region is a bit higher than that of the Andasol CSP plant in Spain which is 2090 KWh/m2/yr. The thesis seeks to uncover the potential for CSP in Nigeria, and determine when the cost of energy from CSP will become competitive with the cost of energy from conventional power. Using three possible economic growth scenarios (reference (7%), high (10%) and optimistic (13%) economic growth scenarios) to model future energy demand and supply from CSP and conventional gas plant. The results obtained show possible competition from potential CSP plant in Nigeria depending on the international and domestic gas market. However, continuous payment of blanket subsidy on the domestic price of natural gas in Nigeria will adversely affect potential investment in CSP market in Nigeria

Probing geomagnetic storm-driven magnetosphere-ionosphere dynamics in D-region via propagation characteristics of very low frequency radio signals

The amplitude and phase of VLF/LF radio signals are sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity of the lower ionosphere which imprints its signature on the Earth-ionosphere waveguide. This characteristics makes it useful in studying sudden ionospheric disturbances, especially those related to prompt X-ray flux output from solar flares and gamma ray bursts (GRBs). However, strong geomagnetic disturbance and storm conditions are known to produce large and global ionospheric disturbances, which can significantly affect VLF radio propagation in the D region of the ionosphere. In this paper, using the data of three propagation paths at mid-latitudes (40° – 54°), we analyze the trend of aspects of VLF diurnal signal under varying solar and geomagnetic space environmental conditions in order to identify possible geomagnetic footprints on the D region characteristics. We found that the trend of variations generally reflect the prevailing space weather conditions in various time scales. In particular, the ‘dipping’ of mid-day signal amplitude (MDP) of VLF always occurs after geomagnetic perturbed or storm conditions in the time scale of 1–2 days. The mean signal before sunrise (MBSR) and mean signal after sunset (MASS) also exhibit storm-induced dipping, but they appear to be influenced by event's exact occurrence time and highly variable conditions of dusk-to-dawn ionosphere. We observed fewer cases of the signals rise (e.g., MDP, MBSR or MASS) following a significant geomagnetic event, though this effect may be related to storms associated phenomena or effects arising from sources other than solar origin. The magnitude of induced dipping (or rise) significantly depends on the intensity and duration of event(s), as well as the propagation path of the signal. The post-storm day signal (following a main event, with lesser or significantly reduced geomagnetic activity), exhibited a tendency of recovery to pre-storm day level. In the present analysis, We do not see a well defined trend of the variations of the post-storm sunrise terminator (SRT) and sunset terminator (SST). The SRT and SST signals show more post-storm dipping in GQD-A118 propagation path but generally an increase along DHO-A118 propagation path. Thus the result could be propagation path dependent and detailed modeling is required to understand these phenomena

Spatial variability of solar quiet fields along 96° magnetic meridian in Africa:results from MAGDAS

We have used chains of Magnetic Data Acquisition System (MAGDAS) magnetometer records of the horizontal (H) and vertical (Z) magnetic field intensities during September 2008 to August 2009 (year of deep minimum) across Africa to study their variability during the quietest international days, which coincidently associated with the sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) event in January 2009. This selection of the most international quiet days is indicative of 80% that are strongly associated with days when unusually strong and prolonged sudden SSW event occurs in January 2009. Interestingly, in January, a significant magnitude depletion of solar quiet (Sq) equivalent current was observed near noon hours around the magnetic equator (Addis Ababa, ABB) compared to any other months along with a consistent significantly reduced value across the Northern Hemisphere and moderate decrease at the Southern Hemisphere. Also, we found that Nairobi and Dar es Salaam at the Southern Hemisphere, which are close to ABB (dip equator), are strongly prone to westward electric field compared to the magnetic equator and Khartoum at the Northern Hemisphere. Significant negative values of MSq(Z) magnitudes observed near noon hours at Hermanus indicate the presence of induced currents that suggest ocean effects along with reversal to significant positive values in the afternoon, which subsided before 1800 LT in almost all the months, indicate stronger influence of ionospheric currents. On seasonal variability of Sq(H), a slight depression at ABB during September equinox is one of the evidences of seasonal Sq focus shift. Latitudinal variability of Sq near-noon hours was also investigated

Solar flare induced cosmic noise absorption

Solar flare events are a major observing emphasis for space weather because they affect the Earth's upper atmosphere and can eject high-energy particles that can adversely affect Earth's technologies. In this study we model 38.2 MHz cosmic noise absorption (CNA) by utilising measurements from the Imaging Riometer for Ionospheric Studies (IRIS) at Kilpisjärvi, Finland obtained during solar cycle 23 (1996-2009). We utilised X-ray archive for the same period from the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) to study solar flare induced cosmic noise absorption. We identified the threshold of flare (M4 class class) that could bear significant influence on CNA. Through epoch analysis, we show the magnitude of absorption that each class of flare could produce. Using the parameters of flare and absorption we present a model that could provide the basis for nowcast of CNA

CSP technology and its potential contribution to electricity supply in northern Nigeria

Energy is an essential requirement for socioeconomic development in a country; however, its provision depends on availability of energy sources and the required investment. As Nigeria is experiencing rapid growth in population, adequate energy provision is necessary for corresponding levels of production and development. The need for sustainable and renewable sources of energy has emerged globally owing to environmental issues associated with the use of conventional fossil fuels. In order to consider the possibility of harnessing the solar energy resource in northern Nigeria, this study explores the potential contribution of the adoption of Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technology to electricity supply in the far northern States of Nigeria. These States are chosen because of the relatively high Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) in the region. The paper seeks to uncover the potential for CSP in Nigeria, and determine when the cost of energy from CSP will become competitive with the cost of energy from conventional power

Climate change and next generation cellular systems

As climate change could affect energy production, it can also undermine telecommunications development which requires increased energy consumption to drive improvement in network penetration, coverage and capacity. Employing secondary data analysis and simulation, this paper presents a study on climate change effect on energy consumption of telecommunication base stations. The impact of climate change on energy consumption was examined by introducing a climate factor,, into validated Base Transceivers Stations (BTS) power consumption models. The BTS energy demand was found to increase with increase in temperature due to cooling requirement. The result shows that, with 1oC increase in outdoor temperature, heat flow through BTS shelter increases by 6.25%. This increase effect, manifests on cooling system with above 1 kW power. The result presented shows the importance of taking climate change variables into consideration when planning next generation cellular networks for sustainable deployment.Key Words: Climate change, renewable energy, cellular systems, base stations, mmWave communication, sustainabilit

Investigation of geomagnetic induced current at high latitude during the storm-time variation

During the geomagnetic disturbances, the geomagnetically induced current (GIC) are influenced by the geoelectric field flowing in conductive Earth. In this paper, we studied the variability of GICs, the time derivatives of the geomagnetic field (dB/dt), geomagnetic indices: Symmetric disturbance field in H (SYM-H) index, AU (eastward electrojet) and AL (westward electrojet) indices, Interplanetary parameters such as solar wind speed (v), and interplanetary magnetic field (Bz) during the geomagnetic storms on 31 March 2001, 21 October 2001, 6 November 2001, 29 October 2003, 31 October 2003 and 9 November 2004 with high solar wind speed due to a coronal mass ejection. Wavelet spectrum based approach was employed to analyze the GIC time series in a sequence of time scales of one to twenty four hours. It was observed that there are more concentration of power between the 14–24 h on 31 March 2001, 17–24 h on 21 October 2001, 1–7 h on 6 November 2001, two peaks were observed between 5–8 h and 21–24 h on 29 October 2003, 1–3 h on 31 October 2003 and 18–22 h on 9 November 2004. Bootstrap method was used to obtain regression correlations between the time derivative of the geomagnetic field (dB/dt) and the observed values of the geomagnetic induced current on 31 March 2001, 21 October 2001, 6 November 2001, 29 October 2003, 31 October 2003 and 9 November 2004 which shows a distributed cluster of correlation coefficients at around r = −0.567, −0.717, −0.477, −0.419, −0.210 and r = −0.488 respectively. We observed that high energy wavelet coefficient correlated well with bootstrap correlation, while low energy wavelet coefficient gives low bootstrap correlation. It was noticed that the geomagnetic storm has a influence on GIC and geomagnetic field derivatives (dB/dt). This might be ascribed to the coronal mass ejection with solar wind due to particle acceleration processes in the solar atmosphere