Modelling Options for Policy Impact Analysis on African Dairy Farms

Studies on the priorities for agricultural research in Eastern and Central Africa concluded that milk is the most important commodity for research and development in the region, based on its potential contribution to the agricultural GDP. It has been presumed that, the right policies, marketing systems and technical support must be sought for dairy development in Africa. In order to determine the right development pattern, appropriate analytical tools must be applied. The TIPICAL (Technology Impact Policy Impact model) was used to analyse the impact of different policies on two typical dairy farming systems in Uganda, which account for more than 70% of milk produced in the country. Seven influential policy areas were also identified: provision of veterinary services, consumption promotion, marketing promotion, input provision, credit access improvement, milk quality improvement and genetic improvement. In general, the policy impacts are very little on farms with local cows but can be magnified up to threefold, if the farms have graded cows. Policies which improve farmers’ accessibility to markets have the greatest impacts. The results obtained from this model were compared to those using the EXTRAPOLATE model. This comparison shows that both models could complement each other in analysing policy impacts on African dairy farms. However, differences in results from the models indicate that more focus should be made on farmers’ willingness to adopt new technology.Africa, Dairy farms, EXTRAPOLATE, Policy impacts, TIPI-CAL

Perspektiven der Milchwirtschaft in Afrika

Agrocultural EconomicsAgrarökonomi

Benchmarking Cost of Milk Production in 46 Countries

The global dairy industry is facing challenges due to the extremely volatile milk price and a substantial increase of feed prices. The goal of this study, therefore, was to compare and benchmark the cost of milk production in 46 countries representing 87% of the world's total milk production, using a standard method developed by the International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN). Two typical farms were selected per country; one average-sized and one larger farm. The cost of milk production in 2010 ranged from 16.91US-$/100kg Energy Corrected Milk (ECM) in Armenia to 97.27 US-$/100kg ECM in Switzerland, with cost differences mainly driven by the diversity in farming and feeding systems. Based on costs, world regions were categorized into four levels: 40-50 US-$in the EU, Middle East and China; 30-40 US-$ in the USA, Brazil, CEEC and Oceania; <30 US- in Africa, Asia, South America; >60 US- in Austria, Norway, Switzerland and Canada. The major drivers for this variation were ranked as; purchased feed cost (the highest) followed by labor, land and machinery costs. Regression analyzes showed that costs were highly correlated milk yield and milk price but not to herd size

A review of interventions and parameters used to address milk quality in eastern and southern Africa

In the last two decades, there has been abundant research directed at improving milk quality and safety all around the world. While some studies limit milk quality to a limited number of bacteriological parameters, it is not unusual to come across papers where quality is assumed or not quantified. The relevant information on milk quality is rather scattered in sub-Saharan Africa. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive review of studies published in eastern and southern Africa in the past two decades, referring to cow milk quality associated with an intervention. This study reports a systematic categorization of the quality parameters related to various interventions where quality was referred to directly and indirectly. It also shows the variation in number and type of parameters used in assessing milk quality in different countries. The microbial quality of milk was the most common quality parameter examined (19 studies), followed by the milk composition (n = 7), then acidity (n = 6) and adulteration with water (n = 4). However, there was no consistency in the quality parameters used to indicate a change in quality associated with these interventions. It is advisable that future studies use the list of parameters presented in this study to build foundation for comparative assessments of change in milk quality for the respective intervention categories.</p

Activation of the lactoperoxidase system as a method of preserving raw milk in areas without cooling facilities

Milk spoilage is a major problem to the dairy sector of tropical countries. High temperatures hasten spoilage, which is worsened by the absence of cooling facilities and adequate transportation means. Some chemicals have been tried as milk preservatives in rural areas, but are now forbidden due to toxicological reasons. The use of the lactoperoxidase system (LPS) might offer a solution to milk preservation in such areas. The lactoperoxidase system is a natural antibiotic system in milk, which could be activated to boost its effectiveness. This study focused on the effects of the lactoperoxidase system on raw bovine milk produced in the Western Highlands of Cameroon during the rainy season. Milk was collected from 17 - 31 farmers in Santa village, bulked and activated with thiocyanate and peroxide. The LPS was activated by addition of 10 ppm thiocyanate and 8.5 ppm peroxide to milk, followed by thorough mixing. Part of the milk was left untreated (control). Treated and control samples were kept under three storage conditions: ambient temperature (22 – 25oC), water bath (20oC) and refrigeration (6 – 8oC). Samples were monitored for spoilage at hourly intervals, except for those in the refrigerator, which were monitored after every 6 hours. Microbial population was also estimated at intervals, using the standard plate count method. The average increase in shelf life of treated milk with respect to the control milk was +7.1 (SD 2.4) hours under ambient temperatures, +8.1 (SD 3.0) hours in a water bath and +46.2 (SD 21.2) hours in the refrigerator. The LPS limited the activity of lactic acid bacteria, which cause spoilage in milk. Treatment reduced the lactic acid content in milk by 29% under ambient temperature and 15% in water bath after 16 hours. The LPS reduced the microbial load in milk stored under ambient temperature by more than one log cycle, after 8 hours of storage. Treated evening milk could remain in good condition for the next day's use without refrigeration. Therefore LPS treatment can improve on income generation from dairying as it enables farmers sell milk in far-off markets.Key Words: Lactoperoxidase system, raw milk, preservatio

Optimal dairy feed input selection under alternative feeds availability and relative prices

Feed formulation is essential in the dairy production chain from economic, nutritional, and environmental perspectives. Optimizing the feed formulation across those three domains – given uncertainty of input prices, input availability, and regional climatic conditions – is a challenge for those in the industry. The diet formulation method that is widely used by trading firms and feed production facilities employs a static linear programming (LP) approach. This approach does not allow for intertemporal feed formulations and switches between dietary feed commodities under feed availability conditions, which result in foregone economic gains for feed producers. The current study develops a multi-period LP feed model that uses historical data to capture ration switch opportunities between available feed resources for dairy cows and demonstrates the potential use of the method in different commodity feed availability situations. We apply 14 diet formulations, each covering 150 months, representing a total of 2100 diets. The diet formulation considers a specific milk production level for a “model cow”, alternative feed formulations available, and volatility in feed prices. The results demonstrate that there is an opportunity for efficiency gains in the dairy industry with respect to feed formulation. Based on dietary feed inclusion and price spreads, barley can be an important dairy feed grain which completely replaces wheat, corn, and sorghum at price spreads of less than 94%, less than 78%, and less than 67%, respectively. Grain-based feed scenarios represent the lowest nutrient variation while multiple meal feeds had the lowest costs. Furthermore, and on average, multiple meal feed scenarios provided 10% higher dietary crude protein contents compared to grain based feed scenarios (i.e. 163 vs 179 g/kg DM formulated feed). Meanwhile, multiple meal feeding cost was 11% lower than that in the grain based feeding scenarios. Additionally, the use of multiple meals reduces alfalfa dietary inclusion by 7% on dry matter basis. Our analysis shows a strong reduction in feed cost associated with dietary crude protein reduction equivalent to 7.6 USD/tonne per 1% reduction in dietary crude protein level. The modeling approach allows for the interaction between feed components over time taking into consideration volatile global feed prices, thereby improving feed availability and feed formulation. Overall, the model provides a decision making tool to improve the use of feed resources in the dairy sector.</p

Manure Management Practices and Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications on Manure Quality as a Fertilizer

Manure has been used as a fertilizer since ancient times and if well-managed it can be an asset, promoting sustainable agriculture, and increasing crop production, particularly for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, most farmers in SSA do not apply recommended manure management practices, such as roofing animal housing, having a water-proof floor or covering manure during storage, causing large nutrient losses during manure storage, increasing greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing the quality of the manure as a fertilizer. This paper compares manure management practices in representative SSA countries, and summarizes government policies and socio-cultural practices that influence the adoption of good (recommended) manure management practices. Three steps were applied in this analysis: (i) review of manure management practices from various literature sources, (ii) interviews on manure management practices and policies with key stakeholders from 13 SSA countries, and (iii) surveys of manure management practices on small, medium, and large scale farms in Ethiopia and Malawi. The review confirms the potential of manure to improve crop yields and promote sustainable agriculture in SSA. Unfortunately, most SSA countries (a) do not explicitly mention manure management in their policies (b) have different ministries that share responsibilities on manure management, often leading to incoherent policies and abnegation of these responsibilities (c) take limited action to promote good practices or enforce legislation on manure management. Also, the field survey indicated that farmers lack knowledge on manure management. However, farmers are able to access agricultural extension services from both government and non-government agencies, although these extension services rarely included information on improved manure management practices. Extension services that encourage exchange and interaction between farmers were most successful in increasing adoption of good manure management practices, and are recommended. In addition, efforts to improve manure management in SSA should strengthen the enforcement of existing policies and provide an enabling environment for adoption of good manure management practices

Pig production in Uganda - adapting to climate change

Pigs are sensitive to heat stress as they lack functioning sweat glands and have small lungs, which reduce their ability to disseminate heat by panting. Moreover, there is limited attention to impacts of climate change on pigs in Uganda by stakeholders despite the potential vulnerability of pigs to heat stress. The objectives of the study were to i) determine the heat-stress status in pigs, ii) analyse factors influencing heat-stress, and iii) explore the heat-stress adaptation options in Lira District, Uganda. Data on heat-stress indicators was collected from a survey of 104 households and measuring 259 pigs in Ojwina (Urban) and Barr (Rural) sub-counties of Lira district. Heat-stress indicators included skin temperature (ST=36.32_C±2_C), and rectal temperature (RT=39.06_C±0.83_C). Ordinary Least Squares linear regression analysis assessed the factors influencing each of the heat-stress indicators. Adaptation options were explored during four gender dis-aggregated focus group discussions with 15 male and 16 female participants in total. The preferred adaptation options were analysed using the average preference rating. According to the farmers, 51.6% of the pigs were heat-stressed. The results showed that heat stress was influenced by the external temperature humidity index, pig management system, pig category, colour, heart girth, water quantity given, pig’s body condition score and time of the day. The results showed that the most preferred adaptation options included constructing a high pig pen roof to facilitate easy air flow (Average Preference Rating = APR = 4.75); pouring water on the pigs (APR = 4.63); and allowing pigs to swim/wallow (APR=4.48). These heat stress adaptation options are suited to the local farm conditions in Lira and offer insight into appropriate techniques that could be applied elsewhere to improve livelihoods and food security. This study confirmed the importance of heat stress risk to pig production in Uganda, and more attention from stakeholders and policy makers is needed

Assessment of hygiene practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in selected counties in Kenya

Smallholder farmers dominate the Kenyan dairy sector producing 95% of the total milk. However, several concerns have been raised on the quality and safety of the milk they produce. This study assessed the hygienic practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in Bomet, Nyeri, and Nakuru counties in Kenya. Interviews and direct observations were carried out to assess hygiene and handling practices by farmers and a total of 92 milk samples were collected along four collection channels: direct suppliers, traders, cooperatives with coolers, and cooperatives without coolers. Microbial analysis was done following standard procedures and data analysed using GenStat and SPSS. This study revealed that farmers did not employ good hygienic practices in their routine dairy management. They used plastic containers for milking and milk storage (34.2%); they did not clean sheds (47.9%) and did not set aside cows that suffered from mastitis factors (83.6%), resulting in poor microbial quality of raw milk along the collection channels. The highest mean total viable counts (8.72 log10 cfu/ml) were recorded in Nakuru while Nyeri had the highest mean E. coli counts (4.97 log10 cfu/ml) and Bomet recorded the highest mean counts of 5.13 and 5.78 log10 cfu/ml for Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes respectively. Based on all above-mentioned parameters, the microbial load in most samples from all three counties exceeded the set Kenyan standards. Farmer training, improving road infrastructure, use of instant coolers at cooperatives, and quality-based payment systems are recommended as measures to curb microbial growth

Activation Of The Lactoperoxidase System As A Method Ofpreserving Raw Milk In Areas Without Cooling Facilities

Milk spoilage is a major problem to the dairy sector of tropical countries. High temperatures hasten spoilage, which is worsened by the absence of cooling facilities and adequate transportation means. Some chemicals have been tried as milk preservatives in rural areas, but are now forbidden due to toxicological reasons. The use of the lactoperoxidase system (LPS) might offer a solution to milk preservation in such areas. The lactoperoxidase system is a natural antibiotic system in milk, which could be activated to boost its effectiveness. This study focused on the effects of the lactoperoxidase system on raw bovine milk produced in the Western Highlands of Cameroon during the rainy season. Milk was collected from 17 - 31 farmers in Santa village, bulked and activated with thiocyanate and peroxide. The LPS was activated by addition of 10 ppm thiocyanate and 8.5 ppm peroxide to milk, followed by thorough mixing. Part of the milk was left untreated (control). Treated and control samples were kept under three storage conditions: ambient temperature (22 - 25°C), water bath (20°C) and refrigeration (6 - 8°C). Samples were monitored for spoilage at hourly intervals, except for those in the refrigerator, which were monitored after every 6 hours. Microbial population was also estimated at intervals, using the standard plate count method. The average increase in shelf life of treated milk with respect to the control milk was +7.1 (SD 2.4) hours under ambient temperatures, +8.1 (SD 3.0) hours in a water bath and +46.2 (SD 21.2) hours in the refrigerator. The LPS limited the activity of lactic acid bacteria, which cause spoilage in milk. Treatment reduced the lactic acid content in milk by 29% under ambient temperature and 15% in water bath after 16 hours. The LPS reduced the microbial load in milk stored under ambient temperature by more than one log cycle, after 8 hours of storage. Treated evening milk could remain in good condition for the next day&apos;s use without refrigeration. Therefore LPS treatment can improve on income generation from dairying as it enables farmers sell milk in far-off markets