Transport des matières en suspension et du carbone organique à l'échelle d'un bassin versant agricole : analyse de la dynamique et modélisation agro-hydrologique (SWAT)

L'étude du transport fluvial des matières en suspension (MES) et du carbone organique dans les rivières du monde informe sur le taux d'érosion des continents, le cycle du carbone et la contribution du carbone terrestre à l'océan. Les objectifs du travail sont, d'une part, de décrire, analyser et quantifier la dynamique des MES et du carbone organique, particulaire (COP) et dissous (COD), lors des périodes de crue, d'évaluer la contribution des événements de crue sur les flux annuels et, d'autre part, de quantifier ces flux sur le long terme par une approche de modélisation agro-hydrologique. L'étude expérimentale est basée sur l'échantillonnage à l'exutoire des données par un prélèvement manuel et automatique dans un bassin versant agricole de 1 110 km2 du Sud-ouest de la France, la Save, un affluent de la Garonne, de Janvier 2007 à Juin 2009. Concernant l'approche de modélisation, le modèle SWAT 2005 (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) est utilisé pour décrire le transport et quantifier le flux des MES et du COP sur du long terme (1999-2008) intégrant les données hydro-climatiques, l'occupation du sol et les itinéraires techniques des pratiques agricoles dans ce bassin. Les résultats montrent la forte variabilité temporelle de la dynamique de transport des MES, COP et COD durant les différentes crues saisonnières. Ces flux sont notamment transportés au printemps grâce aux fréquences importantes des crues et à la durée des crues. La quantification de flux (MES, COP et COD) pendant les crues contribuant aux flux annuel à été estimé. Le flux annuel des MES en 2007 est de 16 614 tonnes, représentant 15 t km-2 (85% du flux annuel transporté en crue pour 16% de la durée annuelle) et il est de 77 960 tonnes représentant 70 t km-2 en 2008 (95% du flux annuel transporté en crue pour 20% de la durée annuelle). Le transport du COP et COD durant les crues est respectivement de 76% et 62% du flux total pour 22% de la durée totale (Janvier 2008 à Juin 2009). Les flux de COP et COD exportés de la Save sont de 3091 tonnes et 1238 tonnes, représentant respectivement, 1,8 t km-2 an-1 et 0,7 t km-2 an-1. En utilisant des analyses statistiques, les facteurs hydro-climatiques qui conditionnent la dynamique du transport montrent de bonnes corrélations entre la précipitation totale, le débit de crue, le flux d'eau et les flux de MES, COP et COD. De plus, la dynamique des MES, COP et COD pour les différents crues a été examinée, en utilisant l'analyse des hystérésis. Les résultats du modèle agro-hydrologique SWAT montrent la forte variabilité temporelle des flux annuels de MES et COP (1999-2008). Le flux annuel de MES varie de 4 766 tonnes à 123 000 tonnes, représentant un flux spécifique de 48 t km-2 an-1 et le flux annuel de POC varie de 120 tonnes à 3 100 tonnes, représentant un flux spécifique de 1,2 t km-2 an-1. La régression entre le flux d'eau annuel et le flux de MES simulé a été établie et les zones potentielles d'érosion sont également identifiées par modélisation pour le bassin versant de la Save.The study of the fluvial suspended sediment and organic carbon transport through the world's streams and rivers provides information on the erosion rate of continents, the cycling of carbon on earth, and the contribution of terrestrial carbon to the oceans. The objectives of the research are, on the one hand, to describe and analyse the transport dynamics of suspended sediment (SS), and dissolved and particulate organic carbon (DOC and POC) during flood events with assessment of flood load contribution and, on the other hand, to quantify the long term fluxes by agro-hydrological modelling approach. The experimental study is based on the field experiment for extensive data collection at the catchment outlet from both manual and automatic sampling within the Save agricultural catchment, 1110 km2, a tributary of the Garonne River in Southwest France from January 2007 through June 2009. For modelling approach, the SWAT model (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) was applied to study long term trend of sediment transport processes, sediment and particulate organic carbon yield taking into account hydrolo-climaitic data (1999-2008), landuse, and agricultural management practices within the catchment. Our results revealed high temporal variability in transport dynamics during different seasonal flood events. SS, DOC and POC load were strongly transported during spring resulting from frequent flood events of high magnitude and timing of flood. The quantification of flood loads of SS, DOC and POC contributing to annual load was estimated. Annual sediment transport in 2007 yielded 16 614 tonnes, representing 15 t km-2 (85% of annual load transport during floods for 16% of annual duration), while the 2008 sediment yield was 77 960 tonnes, representing 70 t km-2 (95% of annual load transport during floods for 20% of annual duration). The transport of POC and DOC during flood events exhibited 76% and 62% of their total loads within 22% of the whole duration (January 2008 to June 2009). POC and DOC export from the Save catchment amounted to 3091 t and 1238 t, representing 1.8 t km-2 y-1 and 0.7 t km-2 y-1, respectively. The hydro-climatic factors conditioning the transport dynamics using statistical analyses revealed strong correlations between total precipitation, flood discharge, total water yield with SS, POC, DOC load transport. Moreover, SS, POC and DOC dynamics using concentration-discharge relationship (hysteresis patterns) at different flood events during rising and falling flow were also examined. SWAT agro-hydrological model results show strong temporal variability of annual sediment and POC yield from the Save catchment (1999-2008). Annual sediment yield ranged from 4766 t to 123000 t, representing a mean specific sediment yield of 48 t km-2 y-1 and annual POC yield ranged from 120 t to 3100 t, representing a mean specific POC yield of 1.2 t km-2 y-1. A regression between annual water yield and simulated annual sediment yield was established and potential source areas of erosion were also identified by modelling for the Save agricultural catchment

Temporal variability of nitrate transport through hydrological response during flood events within a large agricultural catchment in south-west France

The temporal variability of nitrate transport was monitored continuously in a large agricultural catchment, the 1110 km2 Save catchment in south-west France, from January 2007 to June 2009. The overall aim was to analyse the temporal transport of nitrate through hydrological response during flood events in the catchment. Nitrate loads and hysteresis were also analysed and the relationships between nitrate and hydro-climatological variables within flood events were determined. During the study period, 19 flood events were analysed using extensive datasets obtained by manual and automatic sampling. ThemaximumNO3 − concentration during flood varied from 8.2 mg l−1 to 41.1 mg l−1 with flood discharge from 6.75 m3 s−1 to 112.60 m3 s−1. The annual NO3 − loads in 2007 and 2008 amounted to 2514 t and 3047 t, respectively, with average specific yield of 2.5 tkm−12 yr−1. The temporal transport of nitrate loads during different seasonal flood events varied from 12 t to 909 t. Nitrate transport during flood events amounted to 1600 t (64% of annual load; 16% of annual duration) in 2007 and 1872 t (62% of annual load; 20% of annual duration) in 2008. The level of peak discharge during flood events did not control peak nitrate concentrations, since similar nitrate peaks were produced by different peak discharges. Statistically strong correlations were found between nitrate transport and total precipitation, flood duration, peak discharge and total water yield. These four variables may be the main factors controlling nitrate export from the Save catchment. The relationship between nitrate and discharge (hysteresis patterns) investigated through flood events in this study was mainly dominated by anticlockwise behaviour

Assessment of hydrology, sediment and particulate organic carbon yield in a large agricultural catchment using the SWAT model

The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT, 2005) was used to simulate discharge and sediment transport at daily time steps within the intensively farmed Save catchment in south-west France (1110 km2). The SWAT model was applied to evaluate catchment hydrology and sediment and associated particulate organic carbon yield using historical flow and meteorological data for a 10-years (January 1999–March 2009). Daily data on sediment (27 months, January 2007–March 2009) and particular organic carbon (15 months, January 2008–March 2009) were used to calibrate the model. Data on management practices (crop rotation, planting date, fertiliser quantity and irrigation) were included in the model during the simulation period of 10 years. Simulated daily discharge, sediment and particulate carbon values matched the observed values satisfactorily. The model predicted that mean annual catchment precipitation for the total study period (726 mm) was partitioned into evapotranspiration (78.3%), percolation/groundwater recharge (14.1%) and abstraction losses (0.5%), yielding 7.1% surface runoff. Simulated mean total water yield for the whole simulation period amounted to 138 mm, comparable to the observed value of 136 mm. Simulated annual sediment yield ranged from 4.3 t km−2 y−1 to 110 t km−2 y−1 (annual mean of 48 t km−2 y−1). Annual yield of particulate organic carbon ranged from 0.1 t km−2 y−1 to 2.8 t km−2 y−1 (annual mean of 1.2 t km−2 y−1). Thus, the highest annual sediment and particulate carbon yield represented 25 times the minimum annual yield. However, the highest annual water yield represented five times the minimum (222 mm and 51 mm, respectively). An empirical correlation between annual water yield and annual sediment and organic carbon yield was developed for this agricultural catchment. Potential source areas of erosion were also identified with the model. The range of the annual contributing erosive zones varied spatially from 0.1 to 6 t ha−1 according to the slope and agricultural practices at the catchment scale

Dynamics of Nitrogen loads in surface water of an agricultural watershed by modelling approach, the Save, Southwest France.

Agriculture is known to have a great impact of nutrients enrichment on continental water resources. In south-West of France (Gascogne region), water resource are essentially surface water and shallow aquifer. Nitrogen dynamic in river is complex and highly variable throughout season and year, depending on hydrology, landuse, removal in stream. In this context, agricultural impacts on nitrogen concentration are a matter of concern for agricultural decision-maker. In order to introduce sustainable land use concepts in this hilly, clayey and agricultural shallow soil context, the hydrological simulation model SWAT2005 has been tested as a valuable tool to evaluate the consequences of such land use changes on water and nutrient balance components. This semi-distributed hydrological model coupled with agronomical model EPIC is able to simulate the impact of each agricultural landuse at the outlet of the Save catchment (1100 km2). Hydrological parameters model are calibrated based on 14-year historical record (1994–2008). Nitrogen losses have been measured during 2 years (2006-2008) at the outlet and are used to validate the model calibration. Agricultural data at communal scale coupled with Spot image analyses have been used to evaluate agricultural distribution and pressure in SWAT. The aim of this modelling exercise is to simulate nitrogen cycle in whole agricultural Hydrological Response Units (HRU), depending on plant growth and culture rotation, to simulate accurately nitrate load in river. The ability of SWAT to reproduce nitrogen transfert and transformation at this scale and in this agricultural context will be evaluated by a discussion of importance of each nitrogen cycle process in nitrogen losses. SWAT could be a useful tool to test agricultural scenario to improve the nitrogen management in river

Identification of the spatio-temporal and fluvial-pluvial sources of flood inundation in the Lower Mekong Basin

Identification of the sources of the spatio-temporal information of flooding is important for flood control and understanding the water dynamic. Flood disasters are generally caused by two main sources: fluvial and pluvial flooding. However, there is a gap in information and challenge of such particular information in the Mekong River Basin (MRB) known as the largest river basin in Southeast Asia. This paper aims to analyze the spatio-temporal hydrograph separations of flooding and to determine the fluvial and pluvial sources of inundation water in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) by using a distributed rainfall–runoff–inundation (RRI) model and time–space accounting scheme (T–SAS) method. This study focuses on the two major flood events in 2000 and 2011, whose characteristics were different. The one in 2000 was long in terms of flood duration and it was the historically largest annual total flood water with twice the peak times in July and September. The 2011 flood had the highest flooded water during the peak time; however, its annual total flood water was less than the one in 2000. The results of spatio-temporal sources of flooding indicated that during the flow peak time in 2000 and 2011, the flow at Kratie was mainly contributed by 30-day (67%) and 100-day (98%) precipitation from the upstream. The drainage area of the MRB in China, northern Lao PDR, southern Lao PDR and eastern Thailand, and Cambodia and Vietnam contributed to peak flood at Kratie by 13%, 27%, 33%, and 27% for the 2000 flood and 12%, 33%, 38%, and 16% for the 2011 flood. The source of inundated water in the LMB was derived from upstream flow (fluvial source) of 35–36% and local rainfall (pluvial source) of 64–65%. Even though flood events in 2000 and 2011 had different characteristics, the sources of flood inundation in the LMB for both events were majorly from the local rainfall rather than the upstream flow. The large annual flood volume and long during of flooding in 2000 caused severe total economic damages up to 517 million US$in the LMB countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam), while the high peak inundated water in 2011 with shorter flood duration caused damages of 493 million US$

Comparison of CMIP5 and CMIP6 GCM performance for flood projections in the Mekong River Basin

Study region: Mekong River Basin. Study focus: The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) recently announced an updated version of general circulation models (GCMs). This study investigated the performance of improved CMIP6 over those of CMIP5 with respect to precipitation and flood representations in the Mekong River Basin (MRB). The correlation and error comparison from the referenced precipitation exhibited a significant improvement in the peak value representation. Hence, the impacts of climate change on future floods in the MRB were simulated and assessed using a distributed rainfall–runoff–inundation model. New hydrological insights for the region: The results indicated that precipitation from CMIP6 had a higher correlation and a lower error coefficient than CMIP5. Similarly, the simulation of GCM ensembles of monthly discharge from CMIP6 exhibited a comparable average value to the observations, whereas CMIP5 underestimated the discharge simulations. The performance of the mean annual peak discharge improved from 37, 220 m3/s (CMIP5) to 45, 423 m3/s (CMIP6) compared to 43, 521 m3/s (observation). The projections of future floods in the MRB from CMIP6 exhibited an increase of annual peak discharge at Chiang Saen, Vientiane, Pakse, and Kratie stations by 10–15%, 20–22%, and 24–29% for the SSP2-4.5 scenario, and 10–18%, 24–29%, and 41–54% for the SSP5-8.5 scenario in the near future (2026–2050), mid-future (2051–2075), and far future (2076–2100), respectively. The statistical K-S test showed significant changes in all stations and projected periods with a p-value < 0.01

Comparison of Gridded Precipitation Datasets for Rainfall-Runoff and Inundation Modeling in the Mekong River Basin

Precipitation, as a primary hydrological variable in the water cycle plays an important role in hydrological modeling. The reliability of hydrological modeling is highly related to the quality of precipitation data. Accurate long-term gauged precipitation in the Mekong River Basin, however, is limited. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to assess the performances of various gridded precipitation datasets in rainfall-runoff and flood-inundation modeling of the whole basin. Firstly, the performance of the Rainfall-Runoff-Inundation (RRI) model in this basin was evaluated using the gauged rainfall. The calibration (2000–2003) and validation (2004–2007) results indicated that the RRI model had acceptable performance in the Mekong River Basin. In addition, five gridded precipitation datasets including APHRODITE, GPCC, PERSIANN-CDR, GSMaP (RNL), and TRMM (3B42V7) from 2000 to 2007 were applied as the input to the calibrated model. The results of the simulated river discharge indicated that TRMM, GPCC, and APHRODITE performed better than other datasets. The statistical index of the annual maximum inundated area indicated similar conclusions. Thus, APHRODITE, TRMM, and GPCC precipitation datasets were considered suitable for rainfall-runoff and flood inundation modeling in the Mekong River Basin. This study provides useful guidance for the application of gridded precipitation in hydrological modeling in the Mekong River basin

Simulating streamflow in an ungauged catchment of Tonlesap Lake Basin in Cambodia using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model

The study objective of this work is to test the applicability of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to simulate the streamflow through calibration and validation for both daily and monthly basis in the Stung Pursat River catchment, an ungauged sub-catchment of Tonle Sap Basin in Cambodia. In order to achieve the objective of the study, SWAT model was set up with study period of 10 years (2001–2010). Additionally, ArcSWAT2012 and ArcGIS10.2.2 combined with Sequential Uncertainty Fitting-2 (SUFI-2) algorithms were used to conduct uncertainty analysis, calibration and validation of the SWAT model using daily observed streamflow data at the catchment outlet. Daily simulation produced the results with Nash-Sutcliffe Simulation Efficiency (NSE) of 0.38, Percent Bias (PBIAS) of +5.1% and Root Mean square error-observation standard deviation Ratio (RSR) of 0.79 in calibration period, and with NSE of −6.61, PBIAS of −78.38% and RSR of 2.67 in validation period. The streamflow results of monthly time series were improved and acceptable with NSE of 0.60 while decrease the value of PBIAS and RSR to 1.14, and 0.63 respectively. The SWAT model should be used to simulate monthly streamflow in such an ungauged catchment like the Stung Pursat catchment due to data scarcity and uncertainty. Keywords: Streamflow, Ungauged catchment, SWAT model, Tonlesap Lake basin, Cambodi

Estimating Soil Water Retention Curve by Inverse Modelling from Combination of In Situ Dynamic Soil Water Content and Soil Potential Data

Soil water retention curves (SWRCs) are crucial for characterizing soil moisture dynamics, and are particularly relevant in the context of irrigation management. Inverse modelling is one of the methods used to parameterize models representing these curves, which are closest to the field reality. The objective of this study is to estimate the soil hydraulic properties through inverse modelling using the HYDRUS-1D code based on soil moisture and potential data acquired in the field. The in situ SWRCs acquired every 30 min are based on simultaneous soil water content and soil water potential measurements with 10HS and MPS-2 sensors, respectively, in five experimental fields. The fields were planted with drip-irrigated lettuces from February to March 2016 in the Chrey Bak catchment located in the Tonlé Sap Lake region, Cambodia. After calibration of the van Genuchten soil water retention model parameters, we used them to evaluate the performance of HYDRUS-1D to predict soil moisture dynamics in the studied fields. Water flow was reasonably well reproduced in all sites covering a range of soil types (loamy sand and loamy soil) with root mean square errors ranging from 0.02 to 0.03 cm3 cm−3

Simulation of Crop Growth and Water-Saving Irrigation Scenarios for Lettuce: A Monsoon-Climate Case Study in Kampong Chhnang, Cambodia

Setting up water-saving irrigation strategies is a major challenge farmers face, in order to adapt to climate change and to improve water-use efficiency in crop productions. Currently, the production of vegetables, such as lettuce, poses a greater challenge in managing effective water irrigation, due to their sensitivity to water shortage. Crop growth models, such as AquaCrop, play an important role in exploring and providing effective irrigation strategies under various environmental conditions. The objectives of this study were (i) to parameterise the AquaCrop model for lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. crispa L.) using data from farmers’ fields in Cambodia, and (ii) to assess the impact of two distinct full and deficit irrigation scenarios in silico, using AquaCrop, under two contrasting soil types in the Cambodian climate. Field observations of biomass and canopy cover during the growing season of 2017 were used to adjust the crop growth parameters of the model. The results confirmed the ability of AquaCrop to correctly simulate lettuce growth. The irrigation scenario analysis suggested that deficit irrigation is a “silver bullet” water saving strategy that can save 20–60% of water compared to full irrigation scenarios in the conditions of this study.Peer reviewe