The Moderating Role of Perceived Reward on Leadership Style and Policy Involvement Effects on Job Performance among Pharmaceutical Managers

Management and behavioral sciences literature has established a direct link between rewards and employee performance. However, limited research exists on the role of perceived reward on the effects of policy strategy involvement and leadership style on the performance of pharmaceutical managers. Intuitively, perceived rewards may have a potential impact on the behavior and attitudes of pharmaceutical managers toward work, and invariably job performance. Based on the incentive theory of motivation framework, the study explored the causal effect of leadership style, and policy involvement on job performance, and the moderating effect of perceived reward among pharmaceutical managers. Comparative differences in perception between operational and strategic managers were evaluated. A cross-sectional web-based questionnaire survey of a random stratified sample of managers (103 strategic and 138 operational) engaged in pharmaceutical marketing. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the developed model. Construct validity and fit measures of the hypothetical model were adequate. Policy strategy involvement and leadership style had a positive and significant influence on job performance. Moderation analysis showed that low perceived reward significantly weakened the impact of policy engagement on performance. Integrating improved managers’ involvement with policy and strategy development with commensurate rewards is an incentive strategy to improve managers’ job performance. The study was restricted to only two major managerial groups. More job-related behavioral constructs are required to improve the generalizability of findings, which is suggested for further research.Management and behavioral sciences literature has established a direct link between rewards and employee performance. However, limited research exists on the role of perceived reward on the effects of policy strategy involvement and leadership style on the performance of pharmaceutical managers. Intuitively, perceived rewards may potentially impact pharmaceutical managers' behavior and attitudes toward work and, invariably, job performance. Based on the incentive theory of motivation framework, the study explored the causal effect of leadership style and policy involvement on job performance and the moderating effect of perceived reward among pharmaceutical managers. Comparative differences in perception between operational and strategic managers were evaluated. A cross-sectional web-based questionnaire survey of a random stratified sample of managers (103 strategic and 138 operational) engaged in pharmaceutical marketing. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the developed model. Construct validity and appropriate measures of the hypothetical model were adequate. Policy strategy involvement and leadership style positively and significantly influenced job performance. Moderation analysis showed that low perceived reward significantly weakened the impact of policy engagement on performance. Integrating improved managers’ involvement with policy and strategy development with commensurate rewards is an incentive strategy to improve managers’ job performance. The study was restricted to only two major managerial groups. More job-related behavioral constructs are required to improve the generalizability of findings, which is suggested for further research

Analysis of factors influencing pharmaceutical sales workforce engagement in pharmaceutical marketing in Nigeria: a structural equation modeling approach

In the pharmaceutical sales and marketing industry, human capital in terms of the sales workforce is essential to  organizational success. However, there is a need to ensure that the task-environment is adequately resourced. The application of structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques such as factor analysis is necessary to further understand the underlying relevance of these factors. The objective of the study was to explore the factors influencing pharmaceutical sales personnel's work engagement in pharmaceutical companies using factor analysis. A cross-sectional, qualitative research study used an 11-item literature-guided questionnaire administered online to 406 medical sales professionals in the pharmaceutical supply network in Nigeria using random sampling. The factors evaluated include regularity and impact of training,  marketing support, job security as perceived by the employee, incentives, reward for performance, and the prospect of promotion. Others include; minimal work stress, improved career prospects, and an enabling work environment provided for employees involved in pharmaceutical sales operations. The questions were rated on a 3-point Likert scale of 1=fair, 3=poor, and 5=good, to  evaluate respondents’ estimation of factors. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was executed on the dataset and thereafter, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the dataset using SPSS AMOS. Statistical significance was set at p-value < 0.05. The majority of respondents were male (72.2%, 293) and female (27.8%, 113). Respondents from Indigenous firms were predominant (249, 61.3%) compared to Multinational firms (157, 38.7%). There were 289 (71.2%) non-pharmacists and 117 (28.8%) pharmacists. EFA measures of adequacy were satisfactory (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin=0.878, Goodness-of-fit=0.023, Cronbach alpha=0.859, Total variance explained= 51.6%) and produced a 2-factor solution consisting of 9-items (work factors=6, implied factors=3). CFA solution from EFA output produced satisfactory fit estimates (RMSEA=0.044, CMIN/DF=1.787, GF1=0.977, AGFI=0.957, RMR=0.029, and TLI=0.981). The final model had acceptable convergent and discriminant validity values. Job security was considered as the most influential factor (regression coefficient=0.859) and the least was work-life balance (regression coefficient=0.559). The study provided a validated tool to evaluate the pharmaceutical sales workforce’s estimation of the key factors influencing job performance. This serves as an operational template for strategic managers in pharmaceutical companies to improve employee’s perception of management support

Competing Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models in Management Research: Bifactor Modeling of the Employee Work Assessment Tool

Management researchers often use structural equation modeling to analyze data from questionnaire-based instruments. Usually, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is applied to confirm the hypothesized or theorized factor structure of the instrument. Most authors adopt a single CFA model without comparing it against other potentially valid models (general factor, correlated factor model, second-order hierarchical model, and bifactor model). Hence, the dimensionality and reliability of constructs using bifactor modeling to validate latent scores are often ignored. Also, this gap is widened by no unanimous agreement on the use of post hoc modification of CFA models to support fit to the data in covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM). The objective of the study was to explore model fit, dimensionality, and reliability of the Employee Work Assessment Tool (EWAT) using competing CFA models. The study used a published dataset on the EWAT instrument to illustrate the assessment of the dimensionality and model-based reliability of the tool using CB-SEM. Results showed that CFA statistics of the bifactor model were most adequate for the instrument (χ2=70.053, df=19, RMSEA=0.082 [90% confidence interval; 0.062, 0.103], SRMR=0.036, CFI=0.963). The bifactor model ancillary measures supported the unidimensional structure of EWAT with justification for the use of total scores. The study concludes that the instrument is best described and applied as a unidimensional construct, and therefore, a single score can be used to rate employees’ perceptions of their work conditions. The study presents both practical implications for management researchers and simplified reporting for bifactor modelling

AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF MARKETING-MIX IMPACT ON SUPPLY CHANNELS USED BY COMMUNITY PHARMACISTS ENGAGED IN HEALTHCARE SERVICES IN NIGERIA

Objective: The main objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of marketing-mix concepts on the purchasing engagements of community pharmacists with supply channels in low and middle-income settings. Secondly, to use an Impact scale to measure the dominant marketing-mix factors that influence procurement decision-making practices. Methods: A descriptive study that used self-administered questionnaires, distributed to community pharmacists from March to May 2021 in Southwestern, Nigeria. A mixed-method sampling technique was adopted. Ethical approval was given by the Ministry of health (HPRS/381/371). Study outcomes were compared against measures of the Impact scale. Descriptive and Inferential statistics were used to test the study hypotheses using SPSS-25. Significance was set at p<0.05 Results: The response rate was 79.6% representing 398 community pharmacists. Age of community pharmacists had significant association with price-sensitivity (p<0.01). Community pharmacists with more employees tended to be price-sensitive (p=0.003). Promotion variable had the highest influence (Mean score=2.73, SD=0.43, Impact-level=moderate), followed by Price (Mean score=2.65, SD=0.34, Impact-level=moderate), Place (Mean score=2.61, SD=0.51, Impact-level=moderate), Perception (Mean score=2.48, SD=0.42, Impact-level=low), and the least impactful was Product (Mean score=2.46, SD=0.41, Impact level=low). The study revealed an overall low-to-moderate involvement (Mean score=2.59, SD=0.42) and influence of marketing-mix on the level of engagement of community pharmacists with supply channels. Conclusion: Findings suggest a shift of focus away from product-based considerations. Therefore, the study recommends a more balanced decision approach using an Impact rating scale. Improved focus on key priorities that can positively impact quality pharmaceutical care to the patient is advocated

TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL (TAM) FOR PHARMACEUTICAL MARKETING EXECUTIVES: VALIDATION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The technology acceptance model (TAM) is a popular measure of user adoption and acceptance of technology. The pharmaceutical marketing industry has largely incorporated technology-based applications to enhance operational efficiency, effectiveness, and client engagement in the past decade. No study has explored user acceptance by pharmaceutical executives in the context of technology's impact on performance. The study aims to explore the relationship between perceived ease of use (PEOU), perceived usefulness (PU), and behavioral intention (BIU) in the context of the perceived impact of technology on performance (TechIMP). Hypotheses were tested using factor-based structural equation modeling. A random sample of 282 marketing executives was drawn from pharmaceutical companies in Nigeria using an online questionnaire. The developed model provided acceptable measures of fit and validity. Significant positive relationships exist between PEOU, PU, and BIU, explaining 58% of the variance in TechIMP. PEOU had a stronger impact on BIU compared to PU. BIU was a significant link between PEOU and PU to TechIMP. Multigroup analysis showed key differences between male and female executives. The study adds to the existing literature by extending TAM to include TechIMP. Managers should enhance positive user perception and acceptance by engaging in simulated training before introducing new technology and ensuring flexibility of technology use

Competing Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models in Management Research: Bifactor Modeling of the Employee Work Assessment Tool

Management researchers often use structural equation modeling to analyze data from questionnaire-based instruments. Usually, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is applied to confirm the hypothesized or theorized factor structure of the instrument. Most authors adopt a single CFA model without comparing it against other potentially valid models (general factor, correlated factor model, second-order hierarchical model, and bifactor model). Hence, the dimensionality and reliability of constructs using bifactor modeling to validate latent scores are often ignored. Also, this gap is widened by no unanimous agreement on the use of post hoc modification of CFA models to support fit to the data in covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM). The objective of the study was to explore model fit, dimensionality, and reliability of the Employee Work Assessment Tool (EWAT) using competing CFA models. The study used a published dataset on the EWAT instrument to illustrate the assessment of the dimensionality and model-based reliability of the tool using CB-SEM. Results showed that CFA statistics of the bifactor model were most adequate for the instrument (χ2=70.053, df=19, RMSEA=0.082 [90% confidence interval; 0.062, 0.103], SRMR=0.036, CFI=0.963). The bifactor model ancillary measures supported the unidimensional structure of EWAT with justification for the use of total scores. The study concludes that the instrument is best described and applied as a unidimensional construct, and therefore, a single score can be used to rate employees’ perceptions of their work conditions. The study presents both practical implications for management researchers and simplified reporting for bifactor modelling

The impact of firm-based organizational citizenship behavior on continuance and normative commitment among pharmaceutical executives: An SEM approach

Aim/purpose – The study was based on social exchange theory and addressed the effects of firm-based organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) on normative and continuance organizational commitment (OC). Multigroup behavioral differences among pharmaceutical executives were also evaluated

APPLICATION OF SCORING AND DECISION MODELS TO EVALUATE PROCUREMENT DETERMINANTS IN COMMUNITY PHARMACY PRACTICE IN NIGERIA

Objectives:  There is a need to evaluate the key factors influencing the choice of supply channels used by community pharmacists (CPs). The objectives of the study were to evaluate and score the determinant factors influencing CPs’ procurement decisions from supply channels (pharmaceutical companies-PC, Wholesaler-LW, and Open-Market-OM). Secondly, to evaluate preference decisions based on relative odds ratios using regression models. Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study that used structured questionnaires based on World Health Organization’s recommendations for effective procurement decisions. A mixed-sampling method was used to administer the questionnaire to 393 community pharmacists in Southwest, Nigeria. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as Friedman’s test, chi-square, Henry Garrett’s scoring and, multinomial regression (MNL) models were used for data analysis, using SPSS-25. The significance level was set at p<0.05. Results: Results showed that 59.8% (235) of respondents operated as retail practice, 14.8% (62) Wholesale, and 24.4% (96) combined practice. Mean Garrett’s score was highest with ‘quality-assurance (63.36), while ‘Value-added service’ had the least score (38.88) among 10 decision-factors. The median score was 52.82. Individual effects of ‘quality-assurance, competitive-pricing, access-to-credit facilities, flexible payment schedule, range of products, the potential-for-profit, trade-discounts, and value-added service’ were significant determinants of preference decisions (p<0.01; 95% CI) in the MNL model. Interaction effects of competitive pricing and access-to-credit facilities from suppliers had a significant effect on the MNL model (chi-square=493.411; p<0.01; 95% CI). Conclusion: The model predicted preference for supply channels (PC, LW, and OM) at various significance levels of the predictors. The study provided a scoring template for evaluating buying decision parameters. The study provided information that is useful to improve our understanding of buying behavior among CPs in pharmacy practice research                   Peer Review History: Received: 15 July 2021; Revised: 14 August; Accepted: 7 September, Available online: 15 September 2021 Academic Editor:  Dr. Asia Selman Abdullah, Al-Razi university, Department of Pharmacy, Yemen, [email protected] UJPR follows the most transparent and toughest ‘Advanced OPEN peer review’ system. The identity of the authors and, reviewers will be known to each other. This transparent process will help to eradicate any possible malicious/purposeful interference by any person (publishing staff, reviewer, editor, author, etc) during peer review. As a result of this unique system, all reviewers will get their due recognition and respect, once their names are published in the papers. We expect that, by publishing peer review reports with published papers, will be helpful to many authors for drafting their article according to the specifications. Auhors will remove any error of their article and they will improve their article(s) according to the previous reports displayed with published article(s). The main purpose of it is ‘to improve the quality of a candidate manuscript’. Our reviewers check the ‘strength and weakness of a manuscript honestly’. There will increase in the perfection, and transparency.  Received file:                Reviewer's Comments: Average Peer review marks at initial stage: 5.0/10 Average Peer review marks at publication stage: 7.0/10 Reviewers: Dr. Vanina Doris Edo’o, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, Cameroun, [email protected] Dr. Muhammad Zahid Iqbal, AIMST University, Malaysia, [email protected] Similar Articles: AWARENESS OF PHARMACISTS TOWARDS ASPARTAME SIDE EFFECTS IN KHARTOUM CITY, SUDA

Correlates and Clusters of Factors Influencing Perceived Organizational Performance of Pharmaceutical Managers in Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Study

There is limited evidence to show how pharmaceutical managers are profiled based on managerial roles: operational, product, and strategic management level, using clustering and multivariate analyses. The constructs evaluated were:self-efficacy (SE), reward-structure (RS), policy-involvement (PE), task-environment (TE), communication-engagement (CE), and perceived organizational performance (OP). Study objectives were to investigate the profile of pharmaceutical managers based on functional roles and task constructs influencing their performance. Secondly, to assess the influence of SE, TE, PE, CE, and RS on OP of pharmaceutical managers. A literature-guided questionnaire cross-sectional study was administered by stratified random sampling to 241 managers involved in pharmaceutical marketing in Nigeria. Multivariate analyses were used to examine relationships between variables. Two-step Cluster analysis was used to explore the distinct structure of constructs. Kruskal Wallis test compared cluster groups at p≤.05. Associations existed between demographic attributes and managerial roles except for gender (p=0.085), and qualification as pharmacist or non-pharmacist (p=0.124). The regression model showed that SE, TE, and PE were significant predictors of OP. CS and RS had no significant influence on OP. Significant positive relationships were found between six constructs. Three clusters were computed with an overall median cluster score of 24.13. Strategic managers formed the dominant cluster 1 (mean=24.39) with comparatively higher value of PE than Clusters 2 (product managers) and 3 (operational managers). Higher performance scores were related to higher levels of perceived self-efficacy among managers. The study recommends need-specific interventions to address role-specific challenges affecting managers. Adopting improved communication and reward systems to improve overall performance is recommended

An Evaluation of the Reflective Constructs Influencing Community Pharmacists’ Decision-to-Procure from Pharmaceutical Suppliers: A Structural Equation Modeling Study

In low-and middle-income countries, patients’ access to affordable medicines is a perennial challenge at all levels of healthcare delivery. Community pharmacists are expected to bridge the supply and demand gap. Unlike the plethora of studies done at the hospital and government institutions level, there is a paucity of empirical evidence on the factors influencing medicine procurement decisions from supply channels at the community pharmacy level. The study aimed to investigate the influence of community pharmacists’ professional and entrepreneurial considerations on their decision-to-procure from medicine suppliers. A cross-sectional survey which adopted a self-administered questionnaire approach to obtain primary data from randomly sampled respondents (N=398) from three purposively selected states in southwestern, Nigeria. Structural equation modeling (SEM) methodology was used to test the hypothesized model at p<0.05. The study revealed acceptable model fit and validity measures for measurement and structural models. Cost and profitability factors were significant predictors of decision-to-procure compared to service and product quality factors among respondents [β=0.343, p=0.001 vs. β=0.044, p=0.606]. Product selection had a positive moderating effect on cost and profitability factors [t=1.980, p=0.048] and a negative directional effect on service and product quality factors in the hypothesized model [t=-2.960, p=0.003]. Community pharmacists should balance financial considerations with a professional focus to ensure patients’ access to quality and affordable medicines. Study outcomes suggest the development and implementation of universally acceptable guidelines on medicine procurement in community pharmacy settings in low-and middle-income countries. The study validated the SEM model for evaluating priorities influencing community pharmacists’ buying decisions. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to use the SEM framework to explore factors informing drug procurement decisions from the community pharmacists’ perspective in low-and middle-income countries