Kite-marks, standards and privileged legal structures; artefacts of constraint disciplining structure choices

As different countries and regions continue to develop policy and legal frameworks for social enterprises this paper offers new insights into the dynamics of legal structure choice by social entrepreneurs. The potential nodes of conflict between exogenous prescriptions and social entrepreneur’s own orientation to certain aspects of organization and what social entrepreneurs actually do in the face of such conflict is explicated. Kite-marks, standards and legal structures privileged by powerful actors are cast as political artefacts that serve to discipline the choices of legal structure by social entrepreneurs as they prescribe desirable characteristics, behaviours and structures for social enterprises. This paper argues that social enterprises should not be understood as the homogenous organisational category that is portrayed in government policy documents, kite-marks and privileged legal structures but as organisations facing a proliferation of structural forms which are increasingly rendered a governable domain (Nickel & Eikenberry, 2016; Scott, 1998) through the development of kite marks, funder / investor requirements and government policy initiatives. Further, that these developments act to prioritise and marginalise particular forms of social enterprises as they exert coercive, mimetic and normative pressures (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983) that act to facilitate the categorising of social enterprises in a way that strengthens institutional coherence and serves to drive the structural isomorphism (Boxenbaum & Jonsson, 2017; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983) of social enterprise activity. Whilst the actions of powerful actors work to maintain (Greenwood & Suddaby, 2006) the social enterprise category the embedded agency of social entrepreneurs acts to transform it (Battilana, Leca, & Boxenbaum, 2009). The prevailing Institutional logics (Ocasio, Thornton, & Lounsbury, 2017; Zhao & Lounsbury, 2016) that serve to both marginalise and prioritise those legal structures are used to present argument that the choice of legal structure for a social enterprise is often in conflict with the social entrepreneur's orientation to certain aspects of how they wish to organise. Where the chosen legal structure for a social enterprise is in conflict with the social entrepreneur's own organising principles as to how they wish to organise then this can result in the social entrepreneur decoupling (Battilana, Leca, & Boxenbaum, 2009) their business and/or governance practices from their chosen legal structure in order to resolve the tensions that they experience. Social entrepreneurs also experiencing the same tension enact a different response in that they begin to create and legitimate new legal structures on the margins of the social enterprise category through a process of institutional entrepreneurship (Battilana, Leca, & Boxenbaum, 2009; Hardy & Maguire, 2017)

Can understanding squid life-history strategies and recruitment improve management?

Current views of the links between life-history strategies and recruitment processes in fish are contrasted with the pattern emerging for squid. A general perspective is that the roles of space and time are reversed inthe two groups, suggesting that management strategies also should differ. The space/time reversal appears to be more marked in the wide-ranging commercial ommastrephids than in the loliginids, which are morelocalized and have less extreme strategies. Fish have large energy reserves and efficient lifestyles, allowing stocks to produce numerous co-existing year-classes; as larvae surviving a wide range of potentially limiting conditions in different years, they store genetic diversity and stabilize recruitment in time. Squid are primarily annual species, so stocks can only achieve such diversity and stabilization by spawning microcohortsthroughout the year to disperse widely in space into equally variable microhabitats. This behaviour would link recruitment more tightly to environmental variability. The population dynamics and the tactics usedappear quite complex, possibly including kinship, school cohesion and cannibalism

Biodiversity's big wet secret: the global distribution of marine biological records reveals chronic under-exploration of the deep pelagic ocean

Background: Understanding the distribution of marine biodiversity is a crucial first step towards the effective and sustainable management of marine ecosystems. Recent efforts to collate location records from marine surveys enable us to assemble a global picture of recorded marine biodiversity. They also effectively highlight gaps in our knowledge of particular marine regions. In particular, the deep pelagic ocean - the largest biome on Earth - is chronically under-represented in global databases of marine biodiversity. Methodology/Principal Findings: We use data from the Ocean Biogeographic Information System to plot the position in the water column of ca 7 million records of marine species occurrences. Records from relatively shallow waters dominate this global picture of recorded marine biodiversity. In addition, standardising the number of records from regions of the ocean differing in depth reveals that regardless of ocean depth, most records come either from surface waters or the sea bed. Midwater biodiversity is drastically under-represented. Conclusions/Significance: The deep pelagic ocean is the largest habitat by volume on Earth, yet it remains biodiversity's big wet secret, as it is hugely under-represented in global databases of marine biological records. Given both its value in the provision of a range of ecosystem services, and its vulnerability to threats including overfishing and climate change, there is a pressing need to increase our knowledge of Earth's largest ecosystem

The impact of environmental gradients on the early life inshore migration of the short-finned squid Illex illecebrosus

Recruitment of the short-finned squid Illex illecebrosus to adult feeding grounds on the shelf off eastern Canada constitutes an important transition from warm food-limited Gulf Stream waters to cold and productive slope and coastal waters. The impact of such gradients was addressed by analysing the gladius growth of 1585 juvenile squid collected across the Gulf Stream and shelf/slope fronts during research cruises conducted between 1979 and 1989. Temperature- and size-specific growth potential, as estimated by a bioenergetics model, were compared to measured gladius growth rates and revealed that young Illex were energetically expensive and food-limited in Gulf Stream waters (their hatching environment). Growth condition improved inshore, where metabolic costs decreased and more food became available. Similar patterns were observed when size-specific growth rates of squid caught across the temperature and food gradients were directly compared.In addition, transport processes in the Gulf Stream and slope water played an important role in providing access and retention in favourable areas. Juvenile onshore migration seems to be driven by elevated foodrequirements and involves physiological adaptations to compensate for decreasing temperatures. The individual “success” in terms of growth and survival may depend, however, on access to concentrated patches offood which, in turn, will be determined by timing and the transport dynamics of the main water masses

Limitations on locomotor performance in squid

An empirical equation relating O2 consumption (power input) to pressure production during jet-propelled swimming in the squid (Illex illecebrosus) is compared with hydrodynamic estimates of the pressure-flow power output also calculated from pressure data. Resulting estimates of efficiency and stress indicate that the circularly arranged obliquely striated muscles in squid mantle produce maximum tensions about half those of vertebrate cross-striated muscle, that "anaerobic" fibers contribute to aerobic swimming, and that peak pressure production requires an instantaneous power output higher than is thought possible for muscle. Radial muscles probably contribute additional energy via elastic storage in circular collagen fibers. Although higher rates of aerobic power consumption are only found in terrestrial animals at much higher temperatures, the constraint on squid performance is circulation, not ventilation. Anaerobic power consumption is also among the highest ever measured, but the division of labor between "aerobic" and "anaerobic" fibers suggests a system designed to optimize the limited capacity of the circulation

CephBase: Testing Ideas for Cephalopod and Other Species-Level Databases

This report shares our experience of what worked and what did not while developing CephBase (www.cephbase.dal.ca). We share our triumphs and failures as well as our vision for the future to help and encourage those starting new database projects as well as outline ideas about collaboration between existing and yet to be developed databases. It also explains why we chose cephalopods and urges readers to share their enthusiasm for the groups of marine animals they investigate. Clearly, new Internet technologies offer a chance for substantial improvement in global distribution and sharing of information

The forces acting on swimming squid

1. Analysis of cine films and intramantle pressure records for squid Loligo opalescens Berry swimming in a tunnel respirometer provided estimates of all the forces acting in the horizontal and vertical planes for swimming speeds from 0.1 to 0.5 ms−1. 2. Different speeds used different gaits; fin thrust was only important below 0.2 ms−1, ‘anaerobic’ circular muscles were recruited only at supracritical speeds, and hyperinflation caused by contraction of the radial muscle was not seen in steady swimming. 3. The extent, rate and frequency of contraction of the obliquely striated circular muscles varied little with speed, and jet thrust was matched to speed primarily by active pressure control through adjustments in the size of the funnel orifice. 4. Hydrodynamic lift production to compensate for negative buoyancy during enforced horizontal swimming in the tunnel required 30–90% of the total force over the speed range studied and appears less efficient than direct use of jet thrust. This suggests a new rationale for ‘climb-and-glide’ swimming which reduces previous estimates of the gross cost of transport for squid under natural conditions by at least 35%, with no loss of speed. 5. The cost of accelerating water into the mantle of a squid moving at high speed appears to have been underestimated in previous studies. A simulation of a series of escape jets predicts a maximum speed of 8 body lengths s−1 (1.4ms−1), reached after only two jets, because of the high deceleration during refilling

Properties of IIlex illecebrosus Egg Masses Potentially Influencing larval Oceanographic Distribution

Visual observations and video-tape records of the spawning of captive IIlex illecebrosus show that this species can produce gelatinous egg masses 50 cm or larger in diameter while swimming in open water. Measurements of the density of the eggs and the changes in water density which are necessary to lift egg masses indicate that the masses have densities about 0.005% greater than the water used to make the gel, whereas the eggs are more than 5% denser than typical seawater. The gel thus appears to function as a buoyancy mechanism which prevents eggs from sinking. Measurements of rates of temperature equilibration between egg masses and the surrounding water indicate that complete density equilibration requires many days under most conditions. If spawning occurs pelagically, common oceanographic situations where density increases with depth, due either to decreasing temperature (e.g. North Atlantic Central Water) or increasing salinity (e.g. the Gulf Stream), could allow the egg masses to be suspended in the mesopelagic zone. Such a mechanism, which could retain pelagically-spawned eggs of IIlex and other oegopsids, particularly ommastrephids, in a zone where temperatures are adequate to allow embryonic development, helps to explain why there are so few records of ommastrephid eggs in nature