Influence of food safety culture on food handler behaviour and food safety performance of food processing organisations

  Food safety continues to be a challenge in many food companies especially in emerging economies, which are confronted with multiple issues in both the internal and external company environment. Previous efforts to improve food safety performance have been hinged on traditional and technical-oriented approaches such as sampling, testing, inspections, food safety management systems (FSMS) and auditing, which have proven to be not always adequate evidenced by inconsistencies in food safety performance. To enhance food safety performance in food companies, researchers proposed to look beyond these traditional and technical-oriented approaches towards a more integrated approach and suggested the adoption and strengthening of a positive and pro-active food safety culture (FS-culture). FS-culture encompasses a company’s technological and organisational conditions, characteristics of the individuals within the company and the company’s environment, in addition to the existing FSMS. However, FS-culture research is still developing when compared with other culture research domains such as organisational and safety culture. Moreover, there are still knowledge gaps on what FS-culture entails, its measurement, its relationship with food safety performance and how it could be improved. This thesis, therefore, focused on understanding how an organisation’s FS-culture influences food safety and hygiene-related behaviour and food safety performance of an organisation. The literature review presented in chapter 2 identified determinants for conducting FS-culture research. Findings revealed that numerous factors transcending different disciplines are interlinked and as such a systems approach is required to assess an organisation’s FS-culture. The review showed that several elements i.e. individual, group, organisational, technological and company environment characteristics are necessary to evaluate FS-culture, and its influence on food handler behaviour and food safety performance. Moreover, the research suggested that a company’s food safety risks should be considered and to recognise the hierarchical levels as well. The research also suggested defining measurable indicators, development of classification systems, and the use of a triangulated methodology. The resultant determinants provided a basis upon which further FS-culture research could be built on. As a result of these findings, elements suggested in the review were validated in chapter 3 as they enabled an understanding of the prevailing FS-culture of the companies investigated. Moreover, a mixed-methods approach was presented to assess the prevailing FS-culture, with dairy food companies in Zimbabwe as a case study. The methods included: microbial analysis to assess the microbial safety, observations to evaluate actual behaviour, card-aided interviews to assess organisational and technological enabling conditions, questionnaires and storytelling to collect data on employee characteristics, and document analysis to get insight into the microbial safety performance and actual behaviour. Results showed that a mixed-methods approach is suitable in FS-culture assessments due to the method triangulation, which could potentially increase the validity of the research findings. Both the FS-culture elements and the mixed-methods approach enabled the prevailing FS-culture to be distinguished into identified classification levels (reactive, active, proactive) further enhancing their validity. Based on the empirical study, a FS-culture research framework was further developed in Chapter 4, to concurrently assess the prevailing FS-culture of companies differing in product riskiness, as well as the company’s internal and external environment. The framework assessed the following factors: supportiveness of the organisational and technological enabling conditions, employee characteristics, intended and actual behaviour, food safety performance, and the internal (food safety vision, food safety programs, vulnerability of production systems) and external (national values and food safety governance) company environment. The framework was applied to Zimbabwean food companies differing in product riskiness i.e. low, medium and high-risk. Results indicated no direct relationship between product riskiness and FS-culture. However, the company environment seemed to be associated with the prevailing FS-culture. Regarding the internal environment, the vulnerability of the food production system (i.e. susceptibility to microbial contamination) seemed to influence the prevailing FS-culture. With respect to the external environment, food safety governance and national values seemed to influence the way food safety was prioritised, food safety programs were designed, and the way food handlers executed their tasks in actual practice. Chapter 5 further explored the role of the internal and external company environment on an organisation’s FS-culture, in companies operating in Greece, China, Tanzania and Zambia. Both the internal and external company environment seemed to influence the prevailing FS-culture. Companies in African countries (i.e. Tanzania and Zambia) exhibited similarities in the implementation of food safety programs, and in the national values and food safety governance when compared to Greece and China. Food safety governance was reflected in the food safety programs and supportiveness of the organisation to food safety and hygiene. Hofstede cultural dimensions i.e. uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and long vs short-term orientation, reflecting national values, were significantly statistically correlated with aspects of FS-culture such as risk perceptions, attitude and the enabling conditions. Chapter 6 discusses the overall findings in this thesis and presents a broader outlook on FS-culture from an organisational, individual and company environment perspective. Furthermore, a stepwise approach to create, improve and sustain an organisation’s FS-culture is presented. Practical implications of findings in this thesis and recommendations for further research and for the food companies studied are presented. Overall, the research presented in this thesis contributes to the existing literature on FS-culture by providing research determinants that could be useful as a basis upon which further FS-culture research can be built on. Moreover, it provides a FS-culture research framework and assessment grids that can be used for the concurrent analysis and differentiated assessment of an organisation’s prevailing FS-culture, food safety performance, and the internal and external company environment. The mixed-methods approach could enable an in-depth analysis of an organisation’s FS-culture through method-triangulation. Insights provided in this thesis could enable the identification of the prevailing FS-culture, which could be useful in designing effective interventions to create, improve, strengthen and sustain a positive FS-culture. The stepwise approach developed in this thesis could help identify improvement opportunities towards a positive and sustainable FS-culture, thereby contributing to better food safety performanc

Food Fraud and Mitigating Strategies of UK Food Supply Chain during COVID-19

Covid-19 had shown the vulnerability of the food supply chain and fraudsters may take advantage of the pandemic whilst the population needed a continuous supply of safe and quality food. The lack of monitoring and policing in the food supply chain may encourage fraudsters to upscale their operations. Previous studies had warned of a surge in fraudulent products due to COVID-19. This raised the question on whether food fraud had increased during the pandemic? This study aims to investigate food fraud during COVID-19 and how the food supply chain develops mitigating strategies against fraudulent activities. A mixed-method approach including survey and semistructured interviews were conducted among UK food businesses. Two hundred and two agri-food businesses responded to the survey and 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted. The majority of the food businesses did not experience an increase of food fraud activities during COVID19. Two thematic domains and ten sub-themes were identified from the data set. There was a heightened sense of anticipation and preparation for increased fraudulent activities during the pandemic. The main risk mitigating strategies included horizon scanning; developing and maintaining supplier relationship and assurance; understanding product characteristics, testing capabilities, conducting vulnerability assessments and training. Practical and cost-effective strategies for small and medium food businesses were recommended. This is the first empirical study on food fraud and mitigating strategies of the UK food supply chain during the pandemic. Our findings provide evidence for informing the policies and practices of the food regulatory authorities as well as best practices to protect the UK food supply chain against food fraud during exogenous shocks like COVID-19

An intercontinental analysis of food safety culture in view of food safety governance and national values

Taking food safety culture into account is a promising way to improve food safety performance in the food industry. Food safety culture (FS-culture) research is expanding from an organisational perspective to include characteristics of the internal and external company environment. In this study, the prevailing food safety culture in 17 food companies from four countries on three continents (Africa, Asia and Europe) was assessed in view of food safety governance and national values. The internal environment characteristics, i.e. food safety vision, food safety program and food production system vulnerability, were also assessed. Statistical analysis revealed little variation in FS-culture scores between the companies within the same country. Overall the FS-culture for Greek and Zambian companies was scored proactive, while for Chinese and Tanzanian companies an active score was achieved. Both the internal and external company environment seemed to influence the prevailing FS-culture. Cluster analysis showed that Tanzanian and Zambian companies exhibited similarities in the implementation of food safety programs, and in their national values and food safety governance as compared to Greece and China. Food safety governance was reflected in the food safety programs and supportiveness of the organisation to food safety and hygiene. All cultural dimensions were correlated with risk perceptions, with masculinity and long-term orientation also significantly correlated with the enabling conditions and attitude. Understanding how national values and food safety governance approaches differently influence food safety culture is expected to enable formulation of best approaches tailored for companies operating in countries with different company environments, to improve food safety performance.</p

Contribution of edible insects to improved food and nutrition security:a review

The consumption of insects “entomophagy” or insect-based foods is increasingly being recognised as an emerging solution to promote diet diversification and address the multiple burden of malnutrition. Although several studies suggest edible insects as valuable nutrient sources, few have evaluated the effects of processing on nutrient bioavailability and bioaccessibility and provided actual evidence on human nutrition. Moreover, there is limited evidence of their actual contribution to improved food and nutrition security. Therefore, the review evaluated existing evidence on human interventions and the effects of processing methods on bioavailability and bioaccessibility of key nutrients since these directly influence food and nutrition security outcomes. Seven human efficacy studies have been conducted to date and these show limited observable effects on nutrition status therefore more research is required. Findings also suggest that the processing method, insect matrix, composition of the food matrix and interaction with other food components can influence nutrient bioavailability and bioaccessibility. Hence, these should be considered during formulation and upscaling for entomophagy and insect-based foods to be viable intervention strategies against malnutrition.</p

Agro-Ecological Distribution and Consumption of Wild Harvested Edible Insects, Fruits, and Vegetables in Rural Zimbabwe

Natural resources are a valuable component of traditional food systems that contributes to food and nutrition. The distribution and consumption patterns of these natural resources still needs exploration for follow-up research and optimum utilisation. The aim of this study was to investigate the agro-ecological distribution and the consumption of wild harvested edible insects, indigenous fruits and vegetables in rural Zimbabwe. Secondary data generated from a cross-sectional survey targeting 11,973 randomly selected households rural districts was used. The results revealed that at least 14 wild harvested edible insect species, 26 indigenous fruits and 10 indigenous vegetables are commonly consumed. The results showed that the highly consumed indigenous fruits, vegetables and insects were widely distributed in all provinces irrespective of the agro-ecological region and varied due to rainfall pattern and also due to soil type. However, their distribution was in some cases restricted to specific administrative boundaries or provinces. Consumption pattern and preference for some insects, fruits and vegetables varied with province. The distribution and consumption data presented in this study offers an opportunity to advocate for the conservation, production, processing and promotion of specific species in districts by relevant stakeholders and can be used as an advocacy tool for policymakers

An intercontinental analysis of food safety culture in view of food safety governance and national values

Taking food safety culture into account is a promising way to improve food safety performance in the food industry. Food safety culture (FS-culture) research is expanding from an organisational perspective to include characteristics of the internal and external company environment. In this study, the prevailing food safety culture in 17 food companies from four countries on three continents (Africa, Asia and Europe) was assessed in view of food safety governance and national values. The internal environment characteristics, i.e. food safety vision, food safety program and food production system vulnerability, were also assessed. Statistical analysis revealed little variation in FS-culture scores between the companies within the same country. Overall the FS- culture for Greek and Zambian companies was scored proactive, while for Chinese and Tanzanian companies an active score was achieved. Both the internal and external company environment seemed to influence the pre- vailing FS-culture. Cluster analysis showed that Tanzanian and Zambian companies exhibited similarities in the implementation of food safety programs, and in their national values and food safety governance as compared to Greece and China. Food safety governance was reflected in the food safety programs and supportiveness of the organisation to food safety and hygiene. All cultural dimensions were correlated with risk perceptions, with masculinity and long-term orientation also significantly correlated with the enabling conditions and attitude. Understanding how national values and food safety governance approaches differently influence food safety culture is expected to enable formulation of best approaches tailored for companies operating in countries with different company environments, to improve food safety performance

Testing and Improving HACCP Team Proficiency to Strengthen Food Safety Culture

For years, food companies have invested in collecting food safety data to demonstrate how compliant HACCP programs are and more recently to measure where their food safety cultures are at on a culture maturity continuum. These measures are often based on data collected through surveys and number of non-conformances. Decisions are then made for how to be compliant in the next inspection or audit but, the data are often forgotten, hidden away in filing systems, providing no further value to the company. This information wastage goes against the philosophy of HACCP as a preventative continuous improvement approach to food safety, reducing HACCP to a paperwork exercise. HACCP data and review activities provide learning opportunities for companies to modernise risk management and overcome the complacency often associated with ageing HACCP plans. This requires understanding of HACCP Team dynamics and HACCP proficiency to maximise HACCP program upgrades as a basis for strengthening food safety culture. Participants will hear about factors influencing HACCP effectiveness, including the influence of human factors. Using a case-study of a North American pet food company, data were collected at three manufacturing locations for food safety culture and HACCP proficiency. Results were tested using ANOVA and found to be significantly different before and after intervention for all three plants. The proficiency levels improved on average 49% post-intervention and the significant factors causing this improvement were identified through factor analysis. Speakers will share results from this case study and other global studies of HACCP teams, HACCP team interventions, and actions required from a practitioner perspective to make lasting and significant changes. This will include correlation of HACCP team and individual team member proficiency to food safety culture and discussion of practice methods and tools leaders have used to make decisions and change behaviours and improve food safety management and culture

Prevailing food safety culture in companies operating in a transition economy - Does product riskiness matter?

Food safety outbreaks are recurrent events, which regularly cost human lives. Food safety goes beyond food safety management systems; an organisation's prevailing food safety culture, and its internal and external environment must also be considered. This study introduces a research framework to analyse crucial food safety culture elements, and characteristics of the internal (i.e. food safety program, product riskiness, and vulnerability of food production system) and the external company environment (i.e. national values and food safety governance characteristics). We hypothesised that companies producing high-risk products are more likely to demonstrate a proactive food safety culture. We used the framework to assess nine companies producing low, medium, and high-risk products in Zimbabwe, as a case of a transition economy. Results showed no direct relationship between product riskiness and food safety culture, which negated our hypothesis. Other variables explored in this study could have moderated the relationship. We found that the vulnerability (i.e. susceptibility to microbial contamination) of the food production system could be associated with an organisation's food safety culture. Moreover, the external environment could have shaped the prevailing food safety culture. In particular, food safety governance and national values seem to be reflected in the way food safety was prioritised, food safety programs were designed and implemented, the prevailing food safety culture, and the observed food safety behaviour. Further research could investigate the role of the external environment in an organisation's food safety culture by evaluating companies in countries operating with different food safety governance approaches and national values

Food safety culture assessment using a comprehensive mixed-methods approach : A comparative study in dairy processing organisations in an emerging economy

Food safety challenges are a global concern especially in emerging economies, which are in the midst of developmental changes. The challenges are directly or indirectly related to the behaviour and decision-making of personnel, and to an organisation's food safety culture. This study evaluated the prevailing food safety culture in three Zimbabwean dairy companies of different size (multinational, large and medium) using a comprehensive mixed-methods approach. Four key elements were assessed, namely enabling conditions, employee characteristics, actual behaviour and microbial safety performance. Card-aided interviews provided data on enabling conditions, and questionnaires and storytelling on employee characteristics. Observations and microbial analysis assessed actual behaviour and microbial safety performance, respectively. The multinational company demonstrated a more proactive food safety culture compared to the other companies, which operated at an active level as exhibited by multiple inconsistencies in the enabling conditions and compliance behaviour. The large company had a moderate microbial safety performance even though it operated in a potentially risky situation, which could have been mitigated by the food safety management system. The medium-sized company had a poor microbial safety performance likely related to noncompliance with sanitation requirements, negative attitudes towards personal hygiene and an ambivalent attitude towards sanitation. Our study demonstrated the ability of the mixed-methods approach to assess and distinguish an organisation's prevailing food safety culture into identified classification levels (reactive, active, proactive). Specifically, storytelling elicited respondents to share stories, which reflected the food safety and hygiene control attitudes

Determinants for conducting food safety culture research

Background Foodborne outbreaks continue to occur regardless of existing food safety measures indicating the shortcomings of these measures to assure food safety. This has led to the recognition of food safety culture as a key contributory factor to the food safety performance of food establishments. Scope and approach The aim of this paper is to identify determinants for conducting food safety culture research, using the systems approach as the underlying philosophy to guide the structured reconsideration of national, organisational and safety culture literature, in view of food safety. Key findings and conclusions Food safety culture is complex and many interlinking factors are at play. The analysis of ‘culture’ literature showed that food safety culture research should acknowledge the impact of national culture, specify hierarchical level(s) (strategic, tactical, and operational), establish underlying mechanisms, and consider the company's food risks and context characteristics. Major elements to be considered in food safety culture research include organisational and administrative characteristics (i.e. food safety vision, communication, commitment, leadership, training), technical facilities/resources (i.e. food hygiene/safety tools, equipment, & facilities), employee characteristics (i.e. attitudes, knowledge, perceptions and risk awareness), group characteristics, crucial FSMS characteristics, and actual food safety performance. Methodological requirements for food safety culture research include use of the systems approach, measurable indicators, classification systems for differentiated assessment, and use of multiple methods to enhance research validity. The identified food safety culture research determinants provide an underpinned and transparent starting point to the common understanding and research of food safety culture