COMPARISON OF SOME ESSENTIAL AND HEAVY METALS IN THE TOENAILS AND FINGERNAILS OF SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN IN KENYA

This paper describes the determination of the levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) in the toenails and fingernails of children under the age of six years in urban and rural areas in Kenya by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Lead levels in urban areas ranged from 8.0-49.0 μg/g in fingernails and 7.0-62.0 μg/g in toenails as compared to those in rural areas (5.0-36.5 μg/g and 5.5-31.5 μg/g, respectively). A similar trend was observed for Cd where significantly high levels were found in children in urban areas than those in rural areas. The Fe and Zn levels were significantly higher in children in rural areas than those in the urban areas. The levels of all the metals studied were higher in the toenails except for Fe and Ca where the levels were higher in fingernails; however, the difference in the levels was not significant. These results indicate that either the toenails or fingernails can be used as a reference for levels of metals environmental exposure. KEY WORDS: Children, Essential elements, Heavy metals, Fingernails, Toenails, Kenya Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 2009, 23(1), 117-122

Using Intermittent Sand Filters of Various Depths to Remove NH3-N, NO3N and NO2N from the Wastewater of Sugar Milling Factory

Intermittent sand filter systems have been used in wastewater treatment according to Selecky (2012) especially their application for on-site wastewater management. Intermittent sand filters have not been used to treat effluent from sugar factories in Kenya. There is very limited information on how to optimize their application in treating effluent from sugar factory in Kenya. This study focused on optimization of intermittent sand filter used in treatment of wastewater from sugar factory. Samples of wastewater were randomly taken from Kibos Sugar and Allied factories. These samples were loaded into sand filters with different sand depths of 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60m. Different loading rates, volumes and frequencies were applied for each depth. Samples from the filtrate were collected and analyzed in the laboratory for NH3-N, NO3-N and NO2-N values. The data was subjected to analysis of variance for fractional factorial (ANOVA) using the GenStat Version 13.2 computer programme. Wastewater generated from the sugar factories had NH3-N, NO3-N and NO2-N were within the WHO acceptable limits. The sugar factory managers targeting to remove NO3-N should use a sand filter with a depth of 0.45m by loading it at a rate of 2L/min, volume of 30L and frequency of 12hrs. To remove NO2N using a sand filter of 0.45 m deep, they should use a loading rate of 4L/min, loading volume of 10L and loading frequency of 12hrs. Keywords: Effluent, factory, filter, intermittent, sand, sugar, wastewater

Effectiveness of Wildlife Clubs of Kenya Activities in Promoting Awareness and Positive Attitude Towards Wildlife Conservation Education

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of WCK activities in promoting awareness and positive attitude towards wildlife conservation education among secondary schools students’ in Kenya. This study employed descriptive survey and correlational research designs. A sample of 591 respondents was employed for the study. The study utilized questionnaires and interview schedule for data collection. The study found that there exist significant relationship between WCK activities and promotion of awareness of wildlife conservation education at 5% significance level. The level of involvement in environmental conservation activities corresponded to WCK activities demonstrating a likelihood that the involvement of respondents in WCK activities would contribute to the level of awareness towards wildlife conservation. Also, the study found that WCK activities had insignificant influence on promoting positive attitude towards wildlife conservation. This implies that WCK activities do not contribute significantly to the prediction of positive attitude towards wildlife conservation. There is need for more education and awareness program to address ignorance and lack of knowledge by community towards wildlife conservation. It is anticipated that the findings of the current study will provide necessary information useful to the policy makers, members of WCK and other stakeholders to promote the effectiveness of WCK in wildlife conservation education in Kenya. Keywords: Awareness; Attitude; Wildlife conservation education; WCK activitie

In vitro inhibition of tomato Fusarium wilt causative agent by zearalenone from a soil inhabiting fungus

To find naturally occurring compounds for the control of Fusarium wilt disease of tomato in the farming fields, 200 fungal strains were cultured in liquid media and screened for antifungal activity against Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. Lycosperci. The screening was carried out using in vitro antifungal assays and coincidentally a strain of Fusarium species was found to produce secondary metabolites, which were prepared as crude extracts that showed strong antifungal activity. The responsible compound was purified using column chromatography and the chemical structure of the purified compound was determined using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic techniques. A known compound, zearalenone, was found to be responsible for the antifungal activity, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 550 ± 10.5 ppm. This is a sufficient inhibition for F. oxysporium f. sp. Lycosperci, which is the causative agent for Fusarium wilt disease to tomato. Given the global abundance of zearalenone and its implication to human health, the results from this study suggest a sustainable manner of disposing of the mycotoxin and simultaneous benefit in control of the Fusarium wilt disease. It is recommended from this finding that it can be used to suppress fungal attack onto the roots of tomato plant to manage the Fusarium wilt disease.Keywords: Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. Lycosperci, tomato, submerged cultures, column chromatography, zearalenon

The role of the Maternity Liaison Officer in provision of primary health care: A values-based service model

Background: A policy directive of the New South Wales government focused on ensuring that all ethnic groups within the community have appropriate and equitable access to services led to the introduction of the maternity liaison officer (MLO) program in the late 1990s. The role of the MLO is to work alongside health professionals to provide education, social support and counselling to pregnant refugee and migrant women of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (CALD). Methods: We reviewed reports and policy documents from 2008 to examine the attributes of this hospital-based service model and share insights into how the MLOs deliver care to meet the needs of mothers and babies. Findings: Maternity liaison officers have readily assumed the responsibility of maintaining current knowledge and building competency in improving the health and wellbeing of refugee and migrant women and newborns. They act as important bridge between women and the health system enabling vulnerable women to competently navigate their maternity journey, gynaecological care and the care of newborn infants in a culturally sensitive and appropriate manner. Discussion and conclusion: This service model offers an acceptable way to support the delivery of maternity care to women and include those from refugee and CALD- backgrounds. Investment in the rigorous evaluation of this service is needed to provide strong evidence to optimise service delivery and guide future decision making

Porn video shows, local brew, and transactional sex: HIV risk among youth in Kisumu, Kenya

Background: Kisumu has shown a rising HIV prevalence over the past sentinel surveillance surveys, and most new infections are occurring among youth. We conducted a qualitative study to explore risk situations that can explain the high HIV prevalence among youth in Kisumu town, Kenya Methods: We conducted in-depth interviews with 150 adolescents aged 15 to 20, held 4 focus group discussions, and made 48 observations at places where youth spend their free time. Results: Porn video shows and local brew dens were identified as popular events where unprotected multipartner, concurrent, coerced and transactional sex occurs between adolescents. Video halls - rooms with a TV and VCR - often show pornography at night for a very small fee, and minors are allowed. Forced sex, gang rape and multiple concurrent relationships characterised the sexual encounters of youth, frequently facilitated by the abuse of alcohol, which is available for minors at low cost in local brew dens. For many sexually active girls, their vulnerability to STI/HIV infection is enhanced due to financial inequality, gender-related power difference and cultural norms. The desire for love and sexual pleasure also contributed to their multiple concurrent partnerships. A substantial number of girls and young women engaged in transactional sex, often with much older working partners. These partners had a stronger socio-economic position than young women, enabling them to use money/gifts as leverage for sex. Condom use was irregular during all types of sexual encounters. Conclusions: In Kisumu, local brew dens and porn video halls facilitate risky sexual encounters between youth. These places should be regulated and monitored by the government. Our study strongly points to female vulnerabilities and the role of men in perpetuating the local epidemic. Young men should be targeted in prevention activities, to change their attitudes related to power and control in relationships. Girls should be empowered how to negotiate safe sex, and their poverty should be addressed through income-generating activities.</p

Citizen science pioneers in Kenya – A crowdsourced approach for hydrological monitoring

Although water is involved in many ecosystem services, the absence of monitoring data restricts the development of effective water management strategies especially in remote regions. Traditional monitoring networks can be expensive, with unaffordable costs in many low-income countries. Involving citizens in monitoring through crowdsourcing has the potential to reduce these costs but remains uncommon in hydrology. This study evaluates the quality and quantity of data generated by citizens in a remote Kenyan basin and assesses whether crowdsourcing is a suitable method to overcome data scarcity. We installed thirteen water level gauges equipped with signboards explaining the monitoring process to passers-by. Results were sent via a text-message-based data collection framework that included an immediate feedback to citizens. A public web interface was used to visualize the data. Within the first year, 124 citizens reported 1175 valid measurements. We identified thirteen citizens as active observers providing more than ten measurements, whereas 57% only sent one record. A comparison between the crowdsourced water level data and an automatic gauging station revealed high data quality. The results of this study indicate that citizens can provide water level data of sufficient quality and with high temporal resolution

Trajectories of humoral and cellular immunity and responses to a third dose of mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 in patients with a history of anti-CD20 therapy.

BACKGROUND The majority of patients with B-cell-depleting therapies show compromised vaccination-induced immune responses. Herein, we report on the trajectories of anti-SARS-CoV-2 immune responses in patients of the RituxiVac study compared with healthy volunteers and investigate the immunogenicity of a third vaccination in previously humoral non-responding patients. METHODS We investigated the humoral and cell-mediated immune response after SARS-CoV-2 messanger RNA vaccination in patients with a history with anti-CD20 therapies. Coprimary outcomes were antispike and SARS-CoV-2-stimulated interferon-γ concentrations in vaccine responders 4.3 months (median; IQR: 3.6-4.8 months) after first evaluation, and humoral and cell-mediated immunity (CMI) after a third vaccine dose in previous humoral non-responders. Immunity decay rates were compared using analysis of covariance in linear regression. RESULTS 5.6 months (IQR: 5.1-6.7) after the second vaccination, we detected antispike IgG in 88% (29/33) and CMI in 44% (14/32) of patients with a humoral response after two-dose vaccination compared with 92% (24/26) healthy volunteers with antispike IgG and 69% (11/16) with CMI 6.8 months after the second vaccination (IQR: 6.0-7.1). Decay rates of antibody concentrations were comparable between patients and controls (p=0.70). In two-dose non-responders, a third SARS-CoV-2 vaccine elicited humoral responses in 19% (6/32) and CMI in 32% (10/31) participants. CONCLUSION This study reveals comparable immunity decay rates between patients with anti-CD20 treatments and healthy volunteers, but inefficient humoral or CMI after a third SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in most two-dose humoral non-responders calling for individually tailored vaccination strategies in this population.Trial registration numberNCT04877496; ClinicalTrials.gov number

Controlled Human Malaria Infection in Semi-Immune Kenyan Adults (CHMI-SIKA): a study protocol to investigate in vivo Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite growth in the context of pre-existing immunity [version 2; peer review: 2 approved]

Malaria remains a major public health burden despite approval for implementation of a partially effective pre-erythrocytic malaria vaccine. There is an urgent need to accelerate development of a more effective multi-stage vaccine. Adults in malaria endemic areas may have substantial immunity provided by responses to the blood stages of malaria parasites, but field trials conducted on several blood-stage vaccines have not shown high levels of efficacy. We will use the controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) models with malaria-exposed volunteers to identify correlations between immune responses and parasite growth rates in vivo. Immune responses more strongly associated with control of parasite growth should be prioritized to accelerate malaria vaccine development. We aim to recruit up to 200 healthy adult volunteers from areas of differing malaria transmission in Kenya, and after confirming their health status through clinical examination and routine haematology and biochemistry, we will comprehensively characterize immunity to malaria using >100 blood-stage antigens. We will administer 3,200 aseptic, purified, cryopreserved Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites (PfSPZ Challenge) by direct venous inoculation. Serial quantitative polymerase chain reaction to measure parasite growth rate in vivo will be undertaken. Clinical and laboratory monitoring will be undertaken to ensure volunteer safety. In addition, we will also explore the perceptions and experiences of volunteers and other stakeholders in participating in a malaria volunteer infection study. Serum, plasma, peripheral blood mononuclear cells and whole blood will be stored to allow a comprehensive assessment of adaptive and innate host immunity. We will use CHMI in semi-immune adult volunteers to relate parasite growth outcomes with antibody responses and other markers of host immunity. / Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT02739763

Factors influencing participation in controlled human infection models : a pooled analysis from six enteric fever studies [under peer review]

Background: Enteric fever is an acute febrile-illness caused by infection with the human-restricted Salmonella serovars Typhi and Paratyphi. Controlled human infection models (CHIM) of S. Typhi and Paratyphi infection are used to accelerate vaccine development and to better understand host-pathogen interactions. The primary motivations for participants to take part in these studies are unknown. We studied participant motivations, attitudes and the factors influencing CHIM study participation. Methods: Participant surveys were nested in six enteric fever CHIM studies conducted at a single centre in Oxford, UK, between 2011 and 2017. All eligible participants received one invitation to complete an anonymous, self-administered paper or online survey on either day 28 or 60 after challenge. A descriptive analysis was performed on these pooled data. All studies were included, to minimize selection bias. Results: Survey response rates varied from 33.0%-86.1%, yielding 201 participants. In the cohort, 113/198(57.0%) were educated to bachelor’s level, 61.6% were employed, 30.3% were students and 4.6% were unemployed. The most commonly cited motivations for CHIM study participation were a desire to contribute to the progression of medicine (170/201; 84.6%); the prospect of financial reimbursement (166/201; 82.6%) and curiosity about clinical trials (117/201; 57.2%). The majority of respondents (139/197; 70.6%) reported that most people advised them against participation. Conclusion: Motivation to participate in a CHIM study was multi-factorial and heavily influenced by internal drivers beyond monetary reimbursement alone. High educational attainment and employment may be protective factors against financial inducement; however, further research is needed, particularly with CHIM studies expanding to low-income and middle-income countries