Essays in Behavioral Economics

This thesis consists of five chapters that contribute to understanding the consequences, measurement, and origins of heterogeneity in preferences. Underneath this overarching topic, several different threads are weaving together the elements of this thesis. The first such theme is introspection, the second prosocial and moral decision-making, and a third the combination of behavioral and survey measures. The first two chapters study individual behavior in the domains of fairness and helping. In line with the idea that emotional introspection is a key mechanism by which people understand normative obligations and needs, both chapters provide evidence from lab experiments that people intuitively tend to act like they would want others to act. Specifically, the first chapter shows that people prioritize norms from which they benefit themselves, even when unaffected by their own behavior. Similarly, the main result of the second chapter is that in deciding about help, own preferences influence the appreciation of others' utility. The third chapter moves the focus from the individual to the group. Two lab experiments show that when responsibility is diffused among different people, moral behavior decays. The fourth chapter relates to the first two in that it is concerned with introspection. We theoretically and empirically explore how self-knowledge can be inferred from the compression of survey answers and demonstrate that corresponding estimates can improve survey evidence. The last chapter is itself based on survey data. It contributes to understanding the origins of global heterogeneity in preferences, finding that countries' historical experience with statehood has shaped their present levels of patience

Macroscopic Manifestation of Domain-wall Magnetism and Magnetoelectric Effect in a N\'eel-type Skyrmion Host

We report a magnetic state in GaV$_4$Se$_8$ which emerges exclusively in samples with mesoscale polar domains and not in polar mono-domain crystals. Its onset is accompanied with a sharp anomaly in the magnetic susceptibility and the magnetic torque, distinct from other anomalies observed also in polar mono-domain samples upon transitions between the cycloidal, the N\'eel-type skyrmion lattice and the ferromagnetic states. We ascribe this additional transition to the formation of magnetic textures localized at structural domain walls, where the magnetic interactions change stepwise and spin textures with different spiral planes, hosted by neighbouring domains, need to be matched. A clear anomaly in the magneto-current indicates that the domain-wall-confined magnetic states also have strong contributions to the magnetoelectric response. We expect polar domain walls to commonly host such confined magnetic edge states, especially in materials with long wavelength magnetic order

Scanning Probe Microscopy Investigation of Multiferroic Materials Hosting Skyrmion Lattices

Skyrmions are spin textures with particle character that order themselves into so-called “skyrmion lattices” (SkLs). A skyrmion is topologically nontrivial, which adds stability against external perturbations and attracts tremendous interest from the theoretical side. Since skyrmions can be moved with small electrical currents, they are being discussed for novel spintronic applications, such as racetrack memory. Further interest has been spurred by the discovery of multiferroic compounds that also host SkLs, resulting in additional properties that are highly interesting both for applications and for fundamental research. The scope of this thesis encompasses the investigation of two completely different exemplary SkL-hosting multiferroic systems using a broad set of scanning probe microscopy techniques. These can probe multiple properties on a local scale in real space with a single measurement, examining details not resolved by non-local techniques. In the first part, there is a brief introduction to magnetic skyrmions and scanning probe microscopy with a short review of the theoretical background. The materials of interest and their known properties are then introduced. These are Cu2OSeO3, an insulator exhibiting the emergence of Bloch-type skyrmions as well as type-II multiferroicity, and the lacunar spinel chalcogenides, which were recently found to exhibit multiferroic Néel-type skyrmions pinned to magnetic easy-axes/planes together with type-I multiferroicity originating from a structural Jahn–Teller transition. The second part first presents various scanning probe studies and their results for Cu2OSeO3, where, aside from the magnetic textures of the various magnetic phases, the magnetoelectric effect and the magnetic phase transitions are investigated and described with basic theoretical models. Results show a good correlation between observations and theory, as well as with other experimental methods. Various lacunar spinels are then investigated, mostly GaV4S8 and GaMo4S8. Observation of the structural phase transition leads to the observation of {100}-type domain boundaries compatible with the compatibility critera based on crystal geometry. Furthermore, measurements of the magnetic textures of the different magnetic phases for GaV4S8 are presented and analysed. Results highlight a pinning of the pitch vector to the magnetic hard plane, and that the structural domain boundaries are by necessity magnetic domain boundaries. Analysing the influence of surface anisotropy and structural domain boundaries reveals a strong effect of both on the formation of magnetic patterns in their vicinity. Finally, the magnetoelectric effect of different lacunar spinels is investigated by measuring the surface potential with changing magnetic fields leading to a hysteretic behaviour in all materials.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements ErklärungSkyrmionen sind teilchenartige Spintexturen, welche sich in sogenannten Skyrmionengittern anordnen. Jedes Skyrmion besitzt eine topologische Ladung. Dieses Konzept ist von bedeutendem Interesse für die Theorie und führt zu zusätzlicher Stabilität gegen externe Störungen. Da Skyrmionen mit geringen elektrischen Strömen bewegt werden können, sind sie auch Kanditaten für neuartige, spintronische Anwendungen wie den Racetrack-Speicher. Zusätzlich wurden vor einiger Zeit multiferroische Materialien entdeckt, welche ebenso Skyrmionengitter bilden und aufgrund dessen weitere, interessante Eigenschaften besitzen, welche sowohl für Anwendungen als auch für die Grundlagenforschung interessant sind. Inhalt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung zweier verschiedener, exemplarischer multiferroischer Materialien mit Skyrmiongitterphasen mittels verschiedener Rastersondentechniken. Dies erlaubt das gleichzeitige Erfassen mehrerer Parameter auf einer lokalen Skala im Realraum mit einer einzigen Messung und somit die Untersuchung von Details, welche durch nicht-lokale Techniken nicht erfasst werden können. Im ersten Teil wird eine kurze Einleitung über magnetische Skyrmionen und die Rastersondenmikroskopie sowie Abrisse über deren theoretischen Hintergrund gegeben. Im Anschluß werden die untersuchten Materialien und deren Eigenschaften vorgestellt. Das erste System ist Cu2OSeO3, ein Isolator, welcher Bloch-artige Skyrmionengitter formiert und ein Typ-II Multiferroikum ist. Weitere Systeme gehören zur Klasse der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide, welche nach neuesten Erkenntnissen multiferroische Néel-artige Skyrmionen formieren, deren Modulationsvektor zur magnetisch harten Achse/Ebene fixiert ist. Ebenso sind diese aufgrund eines strukturellen Jahn-Teller Überganges Typ-I Multiferroika. Im zweiten Teil werden verschiedene Rastersondenuntersuchungen und ihre Ergebnisse präsentiert. Beginnend mit Cu2OSeO3, werden, neben den den magnetische Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen, der magnetoelektrische Effekt und der helisch-konische Phasenübergang untersucht sowie mit grundlegenden theoretischen Modellen verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Beobachtungen und der Theorie sowie mit anderen Meßmethoden. Im Anschluß werden verschiedene lakunäre Spinell-Chalkogenide, vor allem GaV4S8 und GaMo4S8, untersucht. Beobachtungen des strukturellen Phasenüberganges ergeben die Formierung von {100}-artigen Domänenwänden, welche mit den Vorhersagen der Kompatibilitätskriterien resultierend aus der Kristallgeometrie übereinstimmen. Des Weiteren werden Messungen der magnetischen Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen von GaV4S8 präsentiert sowie analysiert. Die Ergebnisse heben hervor, daß der Modulationsvektor an der magnetisch harten Ebene fixiert ist und daß die strukturellen Domänengrenzen notwendigerweise auch die magnetischen Domänengrenzen sein müssen. Eine Analyse des Einflusses der Oberflächenanisotropie sowie der strukturellen Domänengrenzen zeigt eine starke Wirkung beider auf die Formierung magnetischer Texturen in ihrer Nähe. Schließlich wird der magnetoelektrische Effekt der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide durch Messung des Oberflächenpotentiales als Funktion des angelegten Magnetfeldes untersucht. Beobachtungen ergeben ein hysteretisches Verhalten in allen Materialen.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements Erklärun

Scanning Probe Microscopy Investigation of Multiferroic Materials Hosting Skyrmion Lattices

Skyrmions are spin textures with particle character that order themselves into so-called “skyrmion lattices” (SkLs). A skyrmion is topologically nontrivial, which adds stability against external perturbations and attracts tremendous interest from the theoretical side. Since skyrmions can be moved with small electrical currents, they are being discussed for novel spintronic applications, such as racetrack memory. Further interest has been spurred by the discovery of multiferroic compounds that also host SkLs, resulting in additional properties that are highly interesting both for applications and for fundamental research. The scope of this thesis encompasses the investigation of two completely different exemplary SkL-hosting multiferroic systems using a broad set of scanning probe microscopy techniques. These can probe multiple properties on a local scale in real space with a single measurement, examining details not resolved by non-local techniques. In the first part, there is a brief introduction to magnetic skyrmions and scanning probe microscopy with a short review of the theoretical background. The materials of interest and their known properties are then introduced. These are Cu2OSeO3, an insulator exhibiting the emergence of Bloch-type skyrmions as well as type-II multiferroicity, and the lacunar spinel chalcogenides, which were recently found to exhibit multiferroic Néel-type skyrmions pinned to magnetic easy-axes/planes together with type-I multiferroicity originating from a structural Jahn–Teller transition. The second part first presents various scanning probe studies and their results for Cu2OSeO3, where, aside from the magnetic textures of the various magnetic phases, the magnetoelectric effect and the magnetic phase transitions are investigated and described with basic theoretical models. Results show a good correlation between observations and theory, as well as with other experimental methods. Various lacunar spinels are then investigated, mostly GaV4S8 and GaMo4S8. Observation of the structural phase transition leads to the observation of {100}-type domain boundaries compatible with the compatibility critera based on crystal geometry. Furthermore, measurements of the magnetic textures of the different magnetic phases for GaV4S8 are presented and analysed. Results highlight a pinning of the pitch vector to the magnetic hard plane, and that the structural domain boundaries are by necessity magnetic domain boundaries. Analysing the influence of surface anisotropy and structural domain boundaries reveals a strong effect of both on the formation of magnetic patterns in their vicinity. Finally, the magnetoelectric effect of different lacunar spinels is investigated by measuring the surface potential with changing magnetic fields leading to a hysteretic behaviour in all materials.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements ErklärungSkyrmionen sind teilchenartige Spintexturen, welche sich in sogenannten Skyrmionengittern anordnen. Jedes Skyrmion besitzt eine topologische Ladung. Dieses Konzept ist von bedeutendem Interesse für die Theorie und führt zu zusätzlicher Stabilität gegen externe Störungen. Da Skyrmionen mit geringen elektrischen Strömen bewegt werden können, sind sie auch Kanditaten für neuartige, spintronische Anwendungen wie den Racetrack-Speicher. Zusätzlich wurden vor einiger Zeit multiferroische Materialien entdeckt, welche ebenso Skyrmionengitter bilden und aufgrund dessen weitere, interessante Eigenschaften besitzen, welche sowohl für Anwendungen als auch für die Grundlagenforschung interessant sind. Inhalt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung zweier verschiedener, exemplarischer multiferroischer Materialien mit Skyrmiongitterphasen mittels verschiedener Rastersondentechniken. Dies erlaubt das gleichzeitige Erfassen mehrerer Parameter auf einer lokalen Skala im Realraum mit einer einzigen Messung und somit die Untersuchung von Details, welche durch nicht-lokale Techniken nicht erfasst werden können. Im ersten Teil wird eine kurze Einleitung über magnetische Skyrmionen und die Rastersondenmikroskopie sowie Abrisse über deren theoretischen Hintergrund gegeben. Im Anschluß werden die untersuchten Materialien und deren Eigenschaften vorgestellt. Das erste System ist Cu2OSeO3, ein Isolator, welcher Bloch-artige Skyrmionengitter formiert und ein Typ-II Multiferroikum ist. Weitere Systeme gehören zur Klasse der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide, welche nach neuesten Erkenntnissen multiferroische Néel-artige Skyrmionen formieren, deren Modulationsvektor zur magnetisch harten Achse/Ebene fixiert ist. Ebenso sind diese aufgrund eines strukturellen Jahn-Teller Überganges Typ-I Multiferroika. Im zweiten Teil werden verschiedene Rastersondenuntersuchungen und ihre Ergebnisse präsentiert. Beginnend mit Cu2OSeO3, werden, neben den den magnetische Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen, der magnetoelektrische Effekt und der helisch-konische Phasenübergang untersucht sowie mit grundlegenden theoretischen Modellen verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Beobachtungen und der Theorie sowie mit anderen Meßmethoden. Im Anschluß werden verschiedene lakunäre Spinell-Chalkogenide, vor allem GaV4S8 und GaMo4S8, untersucht. Beobachtungen des strukturellen Phasenüberganges ergeben die Formierung von {100}-artigen Domänenwänden, welche mit den Vorhersagen der Kompatibilitätskriterien resultierend aus der Kristallgeometrie übereinstimmen. Des Weiteren werden Messungen der magnetischen Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen von GaV4S8 präsentiert sowie analysiert. Die Ergebnisse heben hervor, daß der Modulationsvektor an der magnetisch harten Ebene fixiert ist und daß die strukturellen Domänengrenzen notwendigerweise auch die magnetischen Domänengrenzen sein müssen. Eine Analyse des Einflusses der Oberflächenanisotropie sowie der strukturellen Domänengrenzen zeigt eine starke Wirkung beider auf die Formierung magnetischer Texturen in ihrer Nähe. Schließlich wird der magnetoelektrische Effekt der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide durch Messung des Oberflächenpotentiales als Funktion des angelegten Magnetfeldes untersucht. Beobachtungen ergeben ein hysteretisches Verhalten in allen Materialen.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements Erklärun

Scanning Probe Microscopy Investigation of Multiferroic Materials Hosting Skyrmion Lattices

Skyrmions are spin textures with particle character that order themselves into so-called “skyrmion lattices” (SkLs). A skyrmion is topologically nontrivial, which adds stability against external perturbations and attracts tremendous interest from the theoretical side. Since skyrmions can be moved with small electrical currents, they are being discussed for novel spintronic applications, such as racetrack memory. Further interest has been spurred by the discovery of multiferroic compounds that also host SkLs, resulting in additional properties that are highly interesting both for applications and for fundamental research. The scope of this thesis encompasses the investigation of two completely different exemplary SkL-hosting multiferroic systems using a broad set of scanning probe microscopy techniques. These can probe multiple properties on a local scale in real space with a single measurement, examining details not resolved by non-local techniques. In the first part, there is a brief introduction to magnetic skyrmions and scanning probe microscopy with a short review of the theoretical background. The materials of interest and their known properties are then introduced. These are Cu2OSeO3, an insulator exhibiting the emergence of Bloch-type skyrmions as well as type-II multiferroicity, and the lacunar spinel chalcogenides, which were recently found to exhibit multiferroic Néel-type skyrmions pinned to magnetic easy-axes/planes together with type-I multiferroicity originating from a structural Jahn–Teller transition. The second part first presents various scanning probe studies and their results for Cu2OSeO3, where, aside from the magnetic textures of the various magnetic phases, the magnetoelectric effect and the magnetic phase transitions are investigated and described with basic theoretical models. Results show a good correlation between observations and theory, as well as with other experimental methods. Various lacunar spinels are then investigated, mostly GaV4S8 and GaMo4S8. Observation of the structural phase transition leads to the observation of {100}-type domain boundaries compatible with the compatibility critera based on crystal geometry. Furthermore, measurements of the magnetic textures of the different magnetic phases for GaV4S8 are presented and analysed. Results highlight a pinning of the pitch vector to the magnetic hard plane, and that the structural domain boundaries are by necessity magnetic domain boundaries. Analysing the influence of surface anisotropy and structural domain boundaries reveals a strong effect of both on the formation of magnetic patterns in their vicinity. Finally, the magnetoelectric effect of different lacunar spinels is investigated by measuring the surface potential with changing magnetic fields leading to a hysteretic behaviour in all materials.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements ErklärungSkyrmionen sind teilchenartige Spintexturen, welche sich in sogenannten Skyrmionengittern anordnen. Jedes Skyrmion besitzt eine topologische Ladung. Dieses Konzept ist von bedeutendem Interesse für die Theorie und führt zu zusätzlicher Stabilität gegen externe Störungen. Da Skyrmionen mit geringen elektrischen Strömen bewegt werden können, sind sie auch Kanditaten für neuartige, spintronische Anwendungen wie den Racetrack-Speicher. Zusätzlich wurden vor einiger Zeit multiferroische Materialien entdeckt, welche ebenso Skyrmionengitter bilden und aufgrund dessen weitere, interessante Eigenschaften besitzen, welche sowohl für Anwendungen als auch für die Grundlagenforschung interessant sind. Inhalt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung zweier verschiedener, exemplarischer multiferroischer Materialien mit Skyrmiongitterphasen mittels verschiedener Rastersondentechniken. Dies erlaubt das gleichzeitige Erfassen mehrerer Parameter auf einer lokalen Skala im Realraum mit einer einzigen Messung und somit die Untersuchung von Details, welche durch nicht-lokale Techniken nicht erfasst werden können. Im ersten Teil wird eine kurze Einleitung über magnetische Skyrmionen und die Rastersondenmikroskopie sowie Abrisse über deren theoretischen Hintergrund gegeben. Im Anschluß werden die untersuchten Materialien und deren Eigenschaften vorgestellt. Das erste System ist Cu2OSeO3, ein Isolator, welcher Bloch-artige Skyrmionengitter formiert und ein Typ-II Multiferroikum ist. Weitere Systeme gehören zur Klasse der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide, welche nach neuesten Erkenntnissen multiferroische Néel-artige Skyrmionen formieren, deren Modulationsvektor zur magnetisch harten Achse/Ebene fixiert ist. Ebenso sind diese aufgrund eines strukturellen Jahn-Teller Überganges Typ-I Multiferroika. Im zweiten Teil werden verschiedene Rastersondenuntersuchungen und ihre Ergebnisse präsentiert. Beginnend mit Cu2OSeO3, werden, neben den den magnetische Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen, der magnetoelektrische Effekt und der helisch-konische Phasenübergang untersucht sowie mit grundlegenden theoretischen Modellen verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den Beobachtungen und der Theorie sowie mit anderen Meßmethoden. Im Anschluß werden verschiedene lakunäre Spinell-Chalkogenide, vor allem GaV4S8 und GaMo4S8, untersucht. Beobachtungen des strukturellen Phasenüberganges ergeben die Formierung von {100}-artigen Domänenwänden, welche mit den Vorhersagen der Kompatibilitätskriterien resultierend aus der Kristallgeometrie übereinstimmen. Des Weiteren werden Messungen der magnetischen Texturen der verschiedenen magnetischen Phasen von GaV4S8 präsentiert sowie analysiert. Die Ergebnisse heben hervor, daß der Modulationsvektor an der magnetisch harten Ebene fixiert ist und daß die strukturellen Domänengrenzen notwendigerweise auch die magnetischen Domänengrenzen sein müssen. Eine Analyse des Einflusses der Oberflächenanisotropie sowie der strukturellen Domänengrenzen zeigt eine starke Wirkung beider auf die Formierung magnetischer Texturen in ihrer Nähe. Schließlich wird der magnetoelektrische Effekt der lakunären Spinell-Chalkogenide durch Messung des Oberflächenpotentiales als Funktion des angelegten Magnetfeldes untersucht. Beobachtungen ergeben ein hysteretisches Verhalten in allen Materialen.:Abstract/Kurzdarstellung 1 Introduction – Skyrmions meet Multiferroicity 2 Magnetic Skyrmion Lattices 2.1 What is a Skyrmion? 2.2 Formation of Skyrmion Lattices 2.2.1 Basic Considerations 2.2.2 Emergence of Skyrmion Lattices 2.3 General Properties of Skyrmions 2.4 Ways to Observe Skyrmions 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 3.1 General Aspects 3.2 SPM in Contact Mode 3.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 3.2.3 Piezoresponse Force Microscopy 3.3 SPM in Non-Contact Mode 3.3.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 3.3.3 Magnetic Force Microscopy 3.4 About Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 3.4.1 Possible Origins of Dissipation 3.4.2 Measuring Dissipation 3.4.3 Mathematical Background 3.5 Experimental Setup 4 Investigated Materials 4.1 Cubic copper(II)-oxo-selenite Cu2O(SeO3) 4.2 Lacunar Spinel Chalcogenides 4.2.1 General Aspects and Materials Chosen 4.2.2 Structural Phase Transition and Expected Piezoresponse 4.2.3 Magnetic Phase Transition 4.2.4 Investigated Crystals 5 Investigations on Cu2OSeO3 5.1 Observing the Different Magnetic Phases 5.1.1 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Magnetic Force Microscopy 5.1.2 Analysis of Magnetic Textures with Scanning Dissipation Microscopy 5.2 Analysis of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.2.1 Observing the Magnetoelectric Effect with KPFM 5.2.2 Heuristic Description of the Magnetoelectric Effect 5.3 Analysing the Magnetic Phase Transitions with SPM 5.3.1 Motivation from Theory 5.3.2 Distinguishing the Helical, Conical and Field-Polarised Phases 5.3.3 The Helical–Conical Phase Transition 5.3.4 Passing through the Conical Phase 6 Investigations on GaV4S8 6.1 Observing the Structural Phase Transition 6.1.1 Results from nc-AFM 6.1.2 Results from ct-AFM and PFM 6.2 Observing the Magnetic Phases 6.3 Analysing the Magnetic SDM Images 6.3.1 Theoretical Considerations 6.3.2 Rescaling from the Measured to the Magnetic Hard Plane 6.3.3 Influence of the Surface on the Patterns Observed 6.4 Influence of Structural Domain Walls on Magnetic Patterns 7 Further Investigation on Lacunar Spinels 7.1 Investigations on GaMo4S8 7.1.1 Experimental Results 7.1.2 Theoretical Considerations 7.1.3 Evaluation of the Experimental Data 7.2 Magnetoelectric Effect of Lacunar Spinels 8 Remarks About Magnetic Non-Contact Dissipation 9 Summary and Outlook 9.1 Synopsis 9.2 Outlook – Probing the Future A Permissions For Usage of Content B Some Additional Information on Non-Contact Dissipation C Bonus Images Bibliography Publications Acknowledgements Erklärun

Egocentric norm adoption

Social norms pervade human interaction, but their demands are often in conflict. To understand behavior, it is thus crucial to know how individuals resolve normative tradeoffs. This paper proposes that sincere judgments about the relative importance of conflicting norms are shaped by personal interest. We show that people tend to follow norms from which they benefit themselves, even in contexts where their own decisions only affect others. In a (virtual) laboratory experiment, each subject makes two decisions over allocations of points within a group of two other participants. The sets of possible allocations entail different normative tradeoffs, and subjects have no personal stakes in their own decisions. However, they are affected by others' decisions: each subject is part of a group, and the members of different groups simultaneously decide over others' allocations along a circle. We find that subjects' decisions are biased towards the normative principles aligned with their own interests, thereby favoring other players whenever these share those interests. Subjects' beliefs about the choices made by others suggest a largely unconscious mechanism. Moreover, survey answers indicate that the effects are driven by self-centered reasoning: subjects who report pronounced perspective-taking are less biased

Innovative neon refrigeration unit operating down to 30 K

A new compact, low-cost, economically competitive and environmentally friendly cryogenic system for cooling a continuous gas flow down to about 30 K is under developing at the ILK Dresden, reported in this paper. The paper shows thermodynamic calculations of cycles on neon and neon-helium mixtures. The assessment of the degree of thermodynamic perfection of the neon cycles in comparison of neon-helium cycles is provided. The use of neon and neon-helium mixture in cryogenic cycles for cryostatting at a temperature level of 27…63 K will increase the thermodynamic efficiency of the cryogenic system and reduce the energy costs of obtaining cold at this temperature level. A technological chain/process, as well as the main economic indicators of the system under development are presented. The availability of such an innovative refrigeration system can be used in a wide range of cryogenic and cooling applications

Innovative neon refrigeration unit operating down to 30 K

A new compact, low-cost, economically competitive and environmentally friendly cryogenic system for cooling a continuous gas flow down to about 30 K is under developing at the ILK Dresden, reported in this paper. The paper shows thermodynamic calculations of cycles on neon and neon-helium mixtures. The assessment of the degree of thermodynamic perfection of the neon cycles in comparison of neon-helium cycles is provided. The use of neon and neon-helium mixture in cryogenic cycles for cryostatting at a temperature level of 27…63 K will increase the thermodynamic efficiency of the cryogenic system and reduce the energy costs of obtaining cold at this temperature level. A technological chain/process, as well as the main economic indicators of the system under development are presented. The availability of such an innovative refrigeration system can be used in a wide range of cryogenic and cooling applications

Heuristic Description of Magnetoelectricity of Cu2OSeO3

CuO2SeO3 is an insulating material that hosts topologically nontrivial spin whirls, so-called skyrmions, and exhibits magnetoelectric coupling allowing to manipulate these skyrmions by means of electric fields. We report magnetic force microscopy imaging of the real-space spin structure on the surface of a.. bulk single crystal of CuO2SeO3. Based on measurements of the electric polarization using Kelvin-probe force microscopy, we develop a heuristic description of the magnetoelectric properties in CuO2SeO3. The model successfully describes the dependency of the electric polarization on the magnetization in all magnetically modulated phases