Derecho económico y códigos de ética de empresas transnacionales: un análisis sobre la vinculación frente al empleo del Derecho Internacional Privado

Transnational enterprises have caused many difficulties in different legal contexts. The answer given by International Economic Law has demanded a reform in the paradigms of the legal field: from its subordination to financial concepts and its purpose in achieving economic progress to the adoption of the protection of human and fundamental rights as synonyms of development. The result is found in a series of domestic and international legal documents, which urge, besides States and international organizations, transnational corporations to the protection of those valuable rights. In these texts, it is encouraged self-regulation by the implementation of programs of compliance and its consequent elaboration of codes of ethics. However, the main obstacle to the adoption of these initiatives is their voluntary character. This article inquires how the self-regulation carried by corporate codes could enable the protection of human and fundamental rights, and, consequently, achieve the desired development. Thorough theoretical research, with a qualitative focus, this article postulates the employment of private international law equipped with principles. In reality, this legal field performs regulatory functions, common to public law, even though it is named private. Initially, it argues that conflict of laws would be applied in a macro dimension, to confer a legal nature to corporate codes, by allowing characterize them as contracts, sources of torts, a unilateral declaration or consumer relations. Furthermore, private international law would be applied in a micro dimension, with the purpose of allowing the dialogue between different codes of ethics or with other domestic legislations. Conflict of laws’ principles adapts better to achievement of development, object of International Economic Law. It is, in summary, a new answer to Economic Law, which exceeds the limits of public and private: private tools as enterprises and codes of ethics are employed to archive Public Law ends.Las empresas transnacionales generan innúmeras dificultades en diferentes contextos jurídicos. La respuesta del Derecho Económico Internacional exigió un cambio de paradigmas: su subordinación a conceptos financieros, motivado por la búsqueda del progreso económico, cedió espacio para agregar la tutela de Derechos Humanos y fundamentales como sinónimo del desarrollo. El resultado fue la elaboración de una serie de normas jurídicas, domésticas e internacionales, que incitan, además de a Estados y organizaciones internacionales, a las compañías transnacionales a la salvaguardia de estos valores primordiales. Prevalece en estos textos un fuerte incentivo a la autorregulación a través de la adopción de programas de compliance o de códigos de ética. No obstante, el principal obstáculo para la efectiva aplicabilidad es el carácter voluntario de estas iniciativas. Este artículo cuestiona, en definitiva, cómo asegurar que la regulación por códigos corporativos viabilice la tutela de los Derechos Humanos y fundamentales, y, por lo tanto, impulse el desarrollo. En una investigación teórica, de rasgo cualitativo, se aboga el empleo de los principios del DIPr. Se postula que la disciplina internacional jusprivatista ejercería funciones regulatorias, típicas del Derecho Público, aunque se denomine privado. Inicialmente, se sostiene que esta disciplina sea empleada en ámbito macro dimensional, para conferir juridicidad a los códigos de ética, al cualificarlos como contratos, fuente de responsabilidad civil extracontractual, declaración unilateral de voluntad o una relación de consumo. A continuación, se defiende el uso del DIPr en el ámbito microdimensional, para permitir el diálogo entre códigos corporativos o legislaciones domésticas. Los principios de la disciplina permiten el desarrollo del Derecho Económico Internacional, porque se adaptan mejor a los contextos. Se trata de una respuesta novedosa que rompe, en definitiva, los límites entre lo público y lo privado: se utilizan instrumentos privados, como empresas y códigos de ética, para la búsqueda de valores propios del Derecho Público

Por um diálogo uniforme entre a União Europeia, Estados Unidos e Brasil: uma análise comparativa das normas conflituais em matéria contratual nos tratados internacionais

The Law settles itself in the permanent dialogue, as it happens in the municipal sphere of the States, or in the international dimension. In this dimension, there is a progressive movement dedicated to the unification or harmonization of predetermined sectors of Private Law. One of those sectors is the conflict of laws in contracts, which is faced differently by European Union, the United Sates and Brazil. Before the Comparative Law all of them face the same problem: how to solve the conflict of laws in contractual issues, although they are juridical systems oriented by different values, history and culture. In terms of the characteristics of the juridical systems there are founded three legal families, grouped as Romanistic-French Law, Germanic Law and common Law; in all of them there are different treatments of the conflicts of laws in contractual issues. The dialogue between the three legal families, represented by European Union, the United Sates and Brazil is possible only through international treaties, which should be elaborated in respect of the differences of the legal systems. Between unify and harmonize the Law it should be in conformance with certain values, mainly justice, since the unification of the juridical institutions, in many times, force the adoption of incompatible measures in relation to a legal system. In the conflicts of laws in contractual issues it is important to mention that to give an ample party autonomy, which allows the parties to elect the Law applied may not represent the respect to justice, neither restrict the party autonomy excessively. There are species of contracts which are supported by an ample party autonomy, a conflictual autonomy and others which demand a special State or international care, electing, therefore, other connecting factors as the place of the celebration and the place of performance.O Direito funda-se no constante diálogo, seja no âmbito doméstico dos Estados, ou na sua esfera internacional. Nesta, vige o crescente movimento em prol da unificação ou harmonização de setores previamente determinados do Direito Privado. Um destes é o conflito de leis em matéria contratual, que é enfrentado, distintamente, por União Europeia, Estados Unidos e Brasil. Perante o Direito Comparado, todos estes entes enfrentam igual problema: como solver os conflitos de leis em matéria contratual, embora se tratam de ordenamentos jurídicos orientados por valores, história e cultura distintos. Às características dos ordenamentos jurídicos encontram-se presentes três famílias jurídicas, agrupadas como Direito romanístico-francês, Direito germânico e Common-Law; em todos há diferentes tratamentos à matéria de conflitos de leis em sede de contratos. O diálogo entre estas três famílias jurídicas, representadas por União Europeia, Estados Unidos e Brasil só é possível através de tratados internacionais, que devem, ao serem elaborados respeitar as diferenças entre os sistemas jurídicos em questão. Entre unificar e harmonizar o Direito deve-se ater os valores envolvidos, notadamente o da justiça vez que, a unificação das instituições jurídicas, muitas vezes, força a adoção de medidas que são incompatíveis com algum ordenamento jurídico. Em sede de conflitos de leis em matéria contratual, salienta-se que, oportunizar a ampla autonomia da vontade, para que as partes elejam o Direito aplicável não demonstra respeito ao valor justiça, tampouco restringi-la excessivamente. Há espécies contratuais que comportam a autonomia da vontade, a autonomia conflitual tutela de forma irrestrita, e outras que merecem maior zelo estatal ou internacional, escolhendo-se, portanto, outros pontos de conexão como o local da celebração ou o local de execução do negócio jurídico

Desafios do direito internacional contemporâneo: perspectivas para uma nova década

- Divulgação dos SUMÁRIOS das obras recentemente incorporadas ao acervo da Biblioteca Ministro Oscar Saraiva do STJ. Em respeito à Lei de Direitos Autorais, não disponibilizamos a obra na íntegra.- Localização na estante: 341 D441d- Organizado por: Carolina Lima Barbosa Mendes, João Victor Mazzarin Damas e Victor Hugo Alcalde do Nascimento

Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

BACKGROUND Regular, detailed reporting on population health by underlying cause of death is fundamental for public health decision making. Cause-specific estimates of mortality and the subsequent effects on life expectancy worldwide are valuable metrics to gauge progress in reducing mortality rates. These estimates are particularly important following large-scale mortality spikes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. When systematically analysed, mortality rates and life expectancy allow comparisons of the consequences of causes of death globally and over time, providing a nuanced understanding of the effect of these causes on global populations. METHODS The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 cause-of-death analysis estimated mortality and years of life lost (YLLs) from 288 causes of death by age-sex-location-year in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations for each year from 1990 until 2021. The analysis used 56 604 data sources, including data from vital registration and verbal autopsy as well as surveys, censuses, surveillance systems, and cancer registries, among others. As with previous GBD rounds, cause-specific death rates for most causes were estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model-a modelling tool developed for GBD to assess the out-of-sample predictive validity of different statistical models and covariate permutations and combine those results to produce cause-specific mortality estimates-with alternative strategies adapted to model causes with insufficient data, substantial changes in reporting over the study period, or unusual epidemiology. YLLs were computed as the product of the number of deaths for each cause-age-sex-location-year and the standard life expectancy at each age. As part of the modelling process, uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated using the 2·5th and 97·5th percentiles from a 1000-draw distribution for each metric. We decomposed life expectancy by cause of death, location, and year to show cause-specific effects on life expectancy from 1990 to 2021. We also used the coefficient of variation and the fraction of population affected by 90% of deaths to highlight concentrations of mortality. Findings are reported in counts and age-standardised rates. Methodological improvements for cause-of-death estimates in GBD 2021 include the expansion of under-5-years age group to include four new age groups, enhanced methods to account for stochastic variation of sparse data, and the inclusion of COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality-which includes excess mortality associated with the pandemic, excluding COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, and pertussis. For this analysis, 199 new country-years of vital registration cause-of-death data, 5 country-years of surveillance data, 21 country-years of verbal autopsy data, and 94 country-years of other data types were added to those used in previous GBD rounds. FINDINGS The leading causes of age-standardised deaths globally were the same in 2019 as they were in 1990; in descending order, these were, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lower respiratory infections. In 2021, however, COVID-19 replaced stroke as the second-leading age-standardised cause of death, with 94·0 deaths (95% UI 89·2-100·0) per 100 000 population. The COVID-19 pandemic shifted the rankings of the leading five causes, lowering stroke to the third-leading and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to the fourth-leading position. In 2021, the highest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 occurred in sub-Saharan Africa (271·0 deaths [250·1-290·7] per 100 000 population) and Latin America and the Caribbean (195·4 deaths [182·1-211·4] per 100 000 population). The lowest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 were in the high-income super-region (48·1 deaths [47·4-48·8] per 100 000 population) and southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania (23·2 deaths [16·3-37·2] per 100 000 population). Globally, life expectancy steadily improved between 1990 and 2019 for 18 of the 22 investigated causes. Decomposition of global and regional life expectancy showed the positive effect that reductions in deaths from enteric infections, lower respiratory infections, stroke, and neonatal deaths, among others have contributed to improved survival over the study period. However, a net reduction of 1·6 years occurred in global life expectancy between 2019 and 2021, primarily due to increased death rates from COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality. Life expectancy was highly variable between super-regions over the study period, with southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania gaining 8·3 years (6·7-9·9) overall, while having the smallest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 (0·4 years). The largest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 occurred in Latin America and the Caribbean (3·6 years). Additionally, 53 of the 288 causes of death were highly concentrated in locations with less than 50% of the global population as of 2021, and these causes of death became progressively more concentrated since 1990, when only 44 causes showed this pattern. The concentration phenomenon is discussed heuristically with respect to enteric and lower respiratory infections, malaria, HIV/AIDS, neonatal disorders, tuberculosis, and measles. INTERPRETATION Long-standing gains in life expectancy and reductions in many of the leading causes of death have been disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, the adverse effects of which were spread unevenly among populations. Despite the pandemic, there has been continued progress in combatting several notable causes of death, leading to improved global life expectancy over the study period. Each of the seven GBD super-regions showed an overall improvement from 1990 and 2021, obscuring the negative effect in the years of the pandemic. Additionally, our findings regarding regional variation in causes of death driving increases in life expectancy hold clear policy utility. Analyses of shifting mortality trends reveal that several causes, once widespread globally, are now increasingly concentrated geographically. These changes in mortality concentration, alongside further investigation of changing risks, interventions, and relevant policy, present an important opportunity to deepen our understanding of mortality-reduction strategies. Examining patterns in mortality concentration might reveal areas where successful public health interventions have been implemented. Translating these successes to locations where certain causes of death remain entrenched can inform policies that work to improve life expectancy for people everywhere. FUNDING Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

A Unificação do Direito Privado no Mercosul segundo o Direito Comparado Funcional

Dissimilarities in issues about Private InternationalLawcan damage the political, economical and juridicalperformance of regional common markets. In Mercosulit isnecessary the free movement of judicial decisions and arbitralawards, and acts in the law, whichcan only become possiblethrough the unification of rules of Private International Law byinternational treaties in the scope of Mercosul, and through theemployment of Comparative Law. It has to be understood as abranch of the Law designed to rule and solve, completely, legalrelations which are heterogenic or spatially dispersed, and notas a mere mechanism for the selection of the applicable Law. Itis postulated the employment of Functional Comparative Lawas a mechanism for the elaboration and application ofinternational conventions in the scope of Mercosul, as well asto classify the legal issues.Asdisparidades em matéria de normas de DireitoInternacional Privado prejudicam o desempenho da conduçãopolítico-econômico-jurídica de blocos de integração regional.No caso do Mercosulé necessário o livre movimento de decisõesjudiciais ou laudos arbitrais e de negócios jurídicos, o que só épossível mediante a unificação de normas do Direito InternacionalPrivado por tratados internacionais no escopo mercosulino epelo emprego do Direito Comparado. Precisa-se concebê-locomo um ramo jurídico destinado a reger e solver, por completo,relações jurídicas heterogêneas ou espacialmente dispersas, nãoapenas como mero mecanismo de eleição de Direito aplicável.Postula-se o emprego do Direito Comparado funcional comomecanismo para a elaboração e aplicação de convençõesinternacionais no âmbito mercosulino, assim como para aqualificação das relações jus privatistas

Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

BackgroundRegular, detailed reporting on population health by underlying cause of death is fundamental for public health decision making. Cause-specific estimates of mortality and the subsequent effects on life expectancy worldwide are valuable metrics to gauge progress in reducing mortality rates. These estimates are particularly important following large-scale mortality spikes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. When systematically analysed, mortality rates and life expectancy allow comparisons of the consequences of causes of death globally and over time, providing a nuanced understanding of the effect of these causes on global populations.MethodsThe Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 cause-of-death analysis estimated mortality and years of life lost (YLLs) from 288 causes of death by age-sex-location-year in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations for each year from 1990 until 2021. The analysis used 56 604 data sources, including data from vital registration and verbal autopsy as well as surveys, censuses, surveillance systems, and cancer registries, among others. As with previous GBD rounds, cause-specific death rates for most causes were estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model—a modelling tool developed for GBD to assess the out-of-sample predictive validity of different statistical models and covariate permutations and combine those results to produce cause-specific mortality estimates—with alternative strategies adapted to model causes with insufficient data, substantial changes in reporting over the study period, or unusual epidemiology. YLLs were computed as the product of the number of deaths for each cause-age-sex-location-year and the standard life expectancy at each age. As part of the modelling process, uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated using the 2·5th and 97·5th percentiles from a 1000-draw distribution for each metric. We decomposed life expectancy by cause of death, location, and year to show cause-specific effects on life expectancy from 1990 to 2021. We also used the coefficient of variation and the fraction of population affected by 90% of deaths to highlight concentrations of mortality. Findings are reported in counts and age-standardised rates. Methodological improvements for cause-of-death estimates in GBD 2021 include the expansion of under-5-years age group to include four new age groups, enhanced methods to account for stochastic variation of sparse data, and the inclusion of COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality—which includes excess mortality associated with the pandemic, excluding COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, and pertussis. For this analysis, 199 new country-years of vital registration cause-of-death data, 5 country-years of surveillance data, 21 country-years of verbal autopsy data, and 94 country-years of other data types were added to those used in previous GBD rounds.FindingsThe leading causes of age-standardised deaths globally were the same in 2019 as they were in 1990; in descending order, these were, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lower respiratory infections. In 2021, however, COVID-19 replaced stroke as the second-leading age-standardised cause of death, with 94·0 deaths (95% UI 89·2–100·0) per 100 000 population. The COVID-19 pandemic shifted the rankings of the leading five causes, lowering stroke to the third-leading and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to the fourth-leading position. In 2021, the highest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 occurred in sub-Saharan Africa (271·0 deaths [250·1–290·7] per 100 000 population) and Latin America and the Caribbean (195·4 deaths [182·1–211·4] per 100 000 population). The lowest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 were in the high-income super-region (48·1 deaths [47·4–48·8] per 100 000 population) and southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania (23·2 deaths [16·3–37·2] per 100 000 population). Globally, life expectancy steadily improved between 1990 and 2019 for 18 of the 22 investigated causes. Decomposition of global and regional life expectancy showed the positive effect that reductions in deaths from enteric infections, lower respiratory infections, stroke, and neonatal deaths, among others have contributed to improved survival over the study period. However, a net reduction of 1·6 years occurred in global life expectancy between 2019 and 2021, primarily due to increased death rates from COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality. Life expectancy was highly variable between super-regions over the study period, with southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania gaining 8·3 years (6·7–9·9) overall, while having the smallest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 (0·4 years). The largest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 occurred in Latin America and the Caribbean (3·6 years). Additionally, 53 of the 288 causes of death were highly concentrated in locations with less than 50% of the global population as of 2021, and these causes of death became progressively more concentrated since 1990, when only 44 causes showed this pattern. The concentration phenomenon is discussed heuristically with respect to enteric and lower respiratory infections, malaria, HIV/AIDS, neonatal disorders, tuberculosis, and measles.InterpretationLong-standing gains in life expectancy and reductions in many of the leading causes of death have been disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, the adverse effects of which were spread unevenly among populations. Despite the pandemic, there has been continued progress in combatting several notable causes of death, leading to improved global life expectancy over the study period. Each of the seven GBD super-regions showed an overall improvement from 1990 and 2021, obscuring the negative effect in the years of the pandemic. Additionally, our findings regarding regional variation in causes of death driving increases in life expectancy hold clear policy utility. Analyses of shifting mortality trends reveal that several causes, once widespread globally, are now increasingly concentrated geographically. These changes in mortality concentration, alongside further investigation of changing risks, interventions, and relevant policy, present an important opportunity to deepen our understanding of mortality-reduction strategies. Examining patterns in mortality concentration might reveal areas where successful public health interventions have been implemented. Translating these successes to locations where certain causes of death remain entrenched can inform policies that work to improve life expectancy for people everywhere