The code of conduct of the South African public service compared with international guidelines

The overall aim of this research was to understand the essential elements/factors that contribute to the effectiveness of the content of codes of conduct in the public service in addressing corruption. The ultimate objective was to compare the South African public service code of conduct with practical guidelines to determine whether it complies with international practice. The international guidelines used in this research were that of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development on codes of conduct, the Technical Guide to the United Nations Convention against Corruption, the United Nation’s International Code of Conduct for public officials and the Council of Europe’s Model Code of Conduct for public officials. The findings of this research confirmed that the South African public service code of conduct is deficient in some areas and it is recommended that these deficiencies be addressed, having regard to the provisions of the International Guidelines.Dissertation (MPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2012.Auditingunrestricte

Employees' perceptions of trade unions in unionised companies: A survey in Malaysia.

This paper contributes to the understanding of barriers to trade unionism in Malaysia by analysing the perspectives of employees from unionised companies. Employees' perceptions are somewhat positive about their job and work environment and these could be a factor in explaining their non-membership in unions. The survey analysis revealed that non-union employees do not view their unions favourably and perhaps it raises doubts among employees on the ability of unions to protect workplace issues critical to workers. Conceivably this is an indictment of the ineffectiveness of trade unions' leadership. The instrumental perspective appears very prominently in the struggles of unions, and to a lesser extent, the political/ideological perspective. Employees seem to lack knowledge concerning trade unions, indicating unions' failure to reach out to the broad workforce and it is a possible problem in union organising. Union officials should pay more attention to communicating their union's unique characteristics and impact at the workplace. It also offers opportunities to trade unionists to convince the non-union employees in unionised companies for collective representation

Trade unions in Malaysia: Perspectives of employers & employees of unionized companies.

This paper examines the views of employees and employers from unionised companies on trade unions in Peninsular Malaysia. A majority of nonunion members perceived that employers do not display a positive attitude towards the unions at workplace. The role of the individual rather than the collective aspirations of employees is clearly emphasised by employers. The high level of employers’ opposition to unionisation is clearly an indicator of its role in the erosion of collective representation, leading to the diminution of union organising efforts. The highly competitive and dynamic globalized business environment has been the key driver in employers’ attitudes towards trade unions. Trade unions need to review their organising strategies, as well as their internal procedures and processes. Trade unions should go beyond their traditional roles and engage in activities strategic to their communities and employers

A biochemical assessment of stress response following acute and prolonged exposure to antiretroviral drugs (nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors) in vitro.

Doctor of Philosophy in Medical Biochemistry. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Medical School 2015.Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) are the most extensively used antiretroviral (ARV) drugs in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). The long term use of HAART is associated with changes to metabolic parameters leading to lipodystrophy and metabolic syndrome, as well as toxicity to high energy demand organs e.g. liver, kidney, heart, and nervous system. Underlying the myriad of NRTI-associated adverse health outcomes is mitochondrial (mt) toxicity. Although inhibition of mtDNA synthesis was one of the first identified mechanisms of toxicity, it did not provide a holistic explanation for all NRTIs. Furthermore, variations in adaptive stress responses were observed following acute and chronic exposure to NRTIs. Insight gained from the molecular changes induced by NRTIs will enable effective management and limit adverse health outcomes. The human hepatoma (HepG2) cell line was used as an in vitro model to investigate changes to mt function, cellular redox status, and antioxidant response following acute [24 hour (h)] and prolonged (120 h) exposure to NRTIs – Zidovudine (AZT, 7.1μM); Stavudine (d4T, 4μM); Tenofovir (TFV, 1.2μM). Long term exposure to AZT and d4T reduced mtDNA levels (120h, AZT: 76.1%; d4T:36.1%, p<0.05) and mt function was compromised as evidenced by reduced ATP levels (AZT: 38%; d4T: 56.4%) and increased mt membrane depolarisation (p<0.02). Tenofovir compromised mt function at 120 h independently of depleting mtDNA levels. Oxidative stress parameters were significantly elevated by AZT and TFV at 24h; and all NRTIs at 120 h (p<0.05). Endogenous antioxidant response was highest in TFV in both time periods (120h; p<0.05). Once NRTI induced oxidative stress in HepG2 cells was established, protein homeostatic response to oxidative stress was investigated. Lon protease expression and related endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress was evaluated. The data showed that ATP-dependent protein homeostasis responses Lon, heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) and ER stress were significantly increased at 24 h (>2 fold); but significantly decreased at 120 h for all NRTIs (p<0.005). The compromised ATP-dependent stress response then led to the assessment of an ATP- dependent drug transporter responsible for efflux of xenobiotics in hepatocytes. The transporter, ATP-binding cassette C4 (ABCC4), is regulated by microRNA (miR-) 124a. Regulation of ABCC4 by miR-124a has implications for bio-accumulation and resultant toxicity. An inverse relationship between miR-124a and ABCC4 mRNA levels in all treatments at both time periods was observed. All NRTIs elevated miR-124a levels at 24 h (p=0.0009) and this observation was consistent in d4T and TFV treated HepG2 cells at 120 h (p<0.0001). This was accompanied with a concomitant decline in ABCC4 mRNA levels (p<0.0001) relative to the control. Prolonged exposure to AZT caused a decrease in miR-124a and elevated ABCC4 mRNA levels. Protein expression of multi-drug resistance protein 4 (MRP4), coded for by ABCC4, did not correlate to mRNA expression. At 120 h, all NRTIs caused significant depletion of MRP4 (possibly due to oxidative cell membrane damage or ATP depletion). In conclusion, all three NRTIs compromised mt function and induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells, with greater toxicity over 120 h. Reduced ATP levels compromised the ATP-dependent stress response proteins and xenobiotic detoxification. Tenofovir could be considered a safer alternative as it elicited the highest antioxidant response in spite of reduced mt function

Perceived Barriers to Trade Unionism in Malaysia

Although trade unions in Malaysia generally play an important role in protecting the rights of workers, the movement is facing a declining trend. This study has examined the perceptions of workers, employers and trade union leaders on factors contributing to the decline of trade unionism in Malaysia. The central theme of the study was to identify the perceived barriers to trade unionism. Data was obtained through a structured questionnaire survey involving 859 employees, 429 employers and 182 trade union leaders. Further, in-depth interviews were conducted with union leaders, employers and the state to triangulate the results. The findings suggest that trade union decline is inevitable and trade unions do not seem to appeal to a large segment of the workforce. They not only perceive that unions have a negative image, but also that union membership may damage their career prospects. Unions appear to have limited power to maintain strong bargaining relationships with management, to organise new workplaces and to influence the need for union membership among new workers in existing workplaces. The current economic and political climate is further challenging the relevancy of trade unions. This study further suggests that the employer is a key determinant for trade union decline. Employers perceive trade unions as reducing their competitiveness. They also view trade union leaders and members unfavourably. While some employers appear to engage in union busting activities, a majority of employers attempt to influence workers’ values and perceptions by shifting towards HRM-type practices. This study concludes that employer opposition to unionisation as well as internal weaknesses within the trade union movement will mean that trade unions will struggle to collectivise in Malaysia. Leaders in companies, trade unions and the government need to discuss issues related to formation of trade unions, competitiveness of industry and legislation. Accessibility and availability of certain data from trade unions and employers are the main limitations. Based on the research findings, the theoretical and practical implications have been discussed. Suggestions for further research are also presented

The role of the uncoupling protein2 -866G/A polymorphism in oxidative stress markers associated with air pollution exposure during pregnancy.

Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.Consistently high levels of air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, particle matter and nitric oxides have been observed in the Durban South (DS) industrial basin. The adverse health outcomes associated with ambient air pollution (AAP) exposure have underlying molecular mechanisms. Oxidative stress is a known outcome of AAP exposure and contributes to the exacerbation of adverse AAP related outcomes such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) and asthma. Pregnant women are at increased risk of developing oxidative stress due to increased energy expenditure. Oxidative stress during pregnancy is linked to adverse birth outcomes such as intrauterine growth retardation and low birth weight. The mitochondria are the most abundant source of endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS), making these organelles extremely susceptible to oxidative damage. Alterations in mitochondrial function by air pollutants can contribute to oxidative stress. Uncoupling protein2 (UCP2) is an anion carrier located on the inner mitochondrial membrane that regulates mitochondrial ROS production by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) through mild uncoupling. Genetic variation in genes that play a role in oxidative stress response is likely to influence susceptibility to oxidative stress related health outcomes. The aim of this study was to evaluate air pollution associated oxidative stress response in women from the DS industrial basin and determine the functional relevance of a common -866G/A promoter polymorphism in the UCP2 gene. Fifty pregnant women from DS and 50 from north Durban (DN; control) were recruited. The thiobarbituric acid assay (TBARS) and comet assay were performed to measure oxidative stress and DNA fragmentation. Mitochondrial function was evaluated by JC-1 Mitoscreen and ATP luminometry. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was performed to measure mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) damage. Antioxidant response was determined by qPCR to measure mRNA expression of superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and UCP2 mRNA expression. Western blots were performed to quantify UCP2 and Nrf2 protein expression. The samples were genotyped using PCR - restriction fragment length polymorphism. Results from the TBARS assay showed women from DS displayed elevated levels of MDA, a marker for oxidative stress (0.07±0.06μM; p = 0.56). ATP (1.89 fold) and Δψm (45.3±17.2%; p = 0.8) were also elevated in women from DS, favouring free radical production. DNA fragmentation, as indicated by comet tail length was also higher in DS when compared to the control group (0.57±0.16μm; p = 0.037). Analysis of mtDNA viability showed a 0.49 fold change in mtDNA amplification in women from the industrialized DS. All antioxidant genes, i.e. Nrf2 (0.73 fold), UCP2 (1.58 fold), SOD2 (1.23 fold), were up regulated in women from DS. Analysis of protein expression showed a significant increase in UCP2 expression (0.08±0.03RBI; p = 0.049) and a significant decline in Nrf2 levels (1.68±0.84RBI; p = 0.03). The homozygous G genotype was significantly more frequent in DS (37.5%) than in DN (18.6%; p = 0.047; OR: 2.57; 95% CI: 1.353 to 4.885). This genotype exhibited higher MDA levels, comet tail length, Δψm, SOD2, Nrf2, and UCP2 expression than the AA/GA in genotype in women from DS (p > 0.05). This study found that pregnant women from a more industrialized area exhibit higher markers for oxidative stress and conditions that favour mitochondrial free radical production

Mitochondrial and oxidative stress response in HepG2 cells following acute and prolonged exposure to antiretroviral drugs

Chronic HIV treatment with antiretroviral drugs has been associated with adverse health outcomes. Mitochondrial toxicity exhibited by nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) is pinpointed as a molecular mechanism of toxicity. This study evaluated the effect of NRTIs: Zidovudine (AZT, 7.1 μM), Stavudine (d4T, 4 μM) and Tenofovir (TFV, 1.2 μM), on mitochondrial (mt) stress response, mtDNA integrity and oxidative stress response in human hepatoma cells at 24 and 120 h. Markers for mt function, mt biogenesis, oxidative stress parameters, and antioxidant response were evaluated by spectrophotometry, luminometry, flow cytometry, qPCR and western blots. We found that AZT and d4T reduced mtDNA integrity (120 h, AZT: 76.1%; d4T:36.1%, P < 0.05) and remained unchanged with TFV. All three NRTIs, however, reduced ATP levels (AZT: 38%; d4T: 56.4%; TFV: 27.4%, P = 0.01) and mt membrane potential at 120 h (P < 0.005). Oxidative damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were increased by TFV and AZT at 24 h, and by d4T at 120 h (P < 0.05). Antioxidant response molecules and mt biogenesis markers were elevated by all NRTIs, with TFV causing the most significant increase (P < 0.05). Data from this study suggest that AZT, d4T and TFV alter mt function. TFV, however, achieves this independently of mtDNA depletion. Furthermore, AZT exerts toxicity soon after exposure as noted from changes at 24 h and d4T exerts greater toxicity over prolonged exposure (120 h).National Research Foundation Innovation Doctoral Scholarship ; Grant number : 84538 ; Grant sponsor : University of KwaZulu Natal, College of Health Sciences Masters and Doctoral Research Scholarship.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1097-46442016-09-30hb2016Physiolog

The phytoalexin resveratrol ameliorates ochratoxin a toxicity in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxic mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi. It contaminates human and animal food products, and chronic exposure is associated with renal fibrosis in humans (Balkan endemic nephropathy). Resveratrol, a phytoalexin, possesses anti-cancer and antioxidant properties. We investigated the mechanism of cellular oxidative stress induced by OTA, and the effect of resveratrol in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells over 24 and 48 h. Cells were exposed to OTA [IC50¼1.5 mM (24 h) and 9.4 mM (48 h) determined using MTT assay] and 25mM resveratrol. Glutathione was quantified by luminometry and gene expression of Nrf2 and OGG1 was determined by qPCR. Protein expression of Nrf2, LonP1, SIRT3, and pSIRT1 was assessed by Western blot, DNA damage (comet assay), and intracellular reactive oxygen species (flow cytometry). At 24 h, resveratrol increased mRNA expression of the DNA repair enzyme, OGG1 (P<0.05), whereas OTA and OTAþresveratrol significantly decreased OGG1 expression (P<0.05). OGG1 expression increased during 48-h exposure to resveratrol and OTAþresveratrol (P<0.05). Comet tail lengths doubled in 48-h OTA-treated cells, whereas at both time periods, OTAþresveratrol yielded shorter comet tails (P<0.0001). During 24- and 48-h exposure, OTA, resveratrol, and OTAþresveratrol significantly decreased mRNA expression of Nrf2 (P<0.05). Luminometry analysis of GSH revealed an increase by OTAþresveratrol for 24 and 48 h (P<0.05 and P<0.001, respectively). Western blot analysis showed decreased Nrf2 protein expression during 24-h exposure, but increased Nrf2 expression during 48 h. LonP1 protein expression increased during 24-h exposure to OTA (P<0.05) and OTAþresveratrol (P<0.0011) and during 48-h exposure to resveratrol (P<0.0005).http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1097-46442016-12-31hb201

Patulin triggers NRF2-mediated survival mechanisms in kidney cells

Patulin (PAT), a mycotoxin contaminant of apples and apple products, has been implicated in nephrotoxicity. PAT depletes glutathione (GSH) and elevates reactive oxygen species (ROS). The antioxidant (AO) response is activated by Nuclear erythroid 2-related factor (NRF2) and enhanced by Silent information regulator 3 (SIRT3). The effects of PAT on these molecules have yet to be examined. We investigated the effects of PAT on AO response survival pathways in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293). PAT cytotoxicity on HEK293 cells was evaluated (MTT assay; 24 h; [0–100 μM]) to determine an IC50. GSH levels were measured using luminometry. Intracellular ROS was evaluated by flow cytometry. Protein expression of Keap1, NRF2, SIRT3 and PGC-1α was quantified by western blotting and gene expression of SOD2, CAT and GPx was evaluated by qPCR. PAT caused a dose dependent decrease in HEK293 cell viability and a significant increase in levels of intracellular ROS (p = 0.0006). A significant increase in protein expression (p = 0.029) was observed. PAT increased gene expression of SOD2 and CAT (p = 0.0043), however, gene expression of GPx was significantly reduced (p = 0.0043). These results show the up-regulation of NRF2 mediated AO mechanisms in response to PAT toxicity.National Research Foundation (Grant UID: 90102), and the UKZN College of Health Sciencehttp://www.elsevier.com/locate/toxicon2016-06-01hb201

Land use conversion from peat swamp forest to oil palm agriculture greatly modifies microclimate and soil conditions

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) agriculture is rapidly expanding and requires large areas of land in the tropics to meet the global demand for palm oil products. Land cover conversion of peat swamp forest to oil palm (large- and small-scale oil palm production) is likely to have negative impacts on microhabitat conditions. This study assessed the impact of peat swamp forest conversion to oil palm plantation on microclimate conditions and soil characteristics. The measurement of microclimate (air temperature, wind speed, light intensity and relative humidity) and soil characteristics (soil surface temperature, soil pH, soil moisture, and ground cover vegetation temperature) were compared at a peat swamp forest, smallholdings and a large-scale plantation. Results showed that the peat swamp forest was 1.5–2.3 °C cooler with significantly greater relative humidity, lower light intensities and wind speed compared to the smallholdings and large-scale plantations. Soil characteristics were also significantly different between the peat swamp forest and both types of oil palm plantations with lower soil pH, soil and ground cover vegetation surface temperatures and greater soil moisture in the peat swamp forest. These results suggest that peat swamp forests have greater ecosystem benefits compared to oil palm plantations with smallholdings agricultural approach as a promising management practice to improve microhabitat conditions. Our findings also justify the conservation of remaining peat swamp forest as it provides a refuge from harsh microclimatic conditions that characterize large plantations and smallholdings