Comparative Analysis of Podocyte Foot Process Morphology in Three Species by 3D Super-Resolution Microscopy

Since the size selectivity of the filtration barrier and kidney function are highly dependent on podocyte foot process morphology, visualization of foot processes is important. However, the size of foot processes is below the optical resolution of light microscopy. Therefore, electron microcopy has been indispensable to detect changes in foot process morphology so far, but it is a sophisticated and time-consuming technique. Recently, our group has shown that 3D structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM), a super-resolution microscopy (SRM) technique, can visualize individual foot processes in human biopsies. Moreover, we have developed a software-based approach to directly quantify the structure of podocyte foot processes named Podocyte Exact Morphology Measurement Procedure (PEMP). As shown in patients suffering from minimal change disease (MCD), PEMP allows the quantification of changes of the foot process morphology by measuring the filtration slit density (FSD). Since rodents are frequently used in basic research, we have applied PEMP to quantify foot processes of mice and rats. Comparative analysis of nephrin-stained kidneys from humans, rats, and mice showed significant differences of the FSD. The highest FSD was measured in mice (3.83 ± 0.37 μm−1; mean ± SD) followed by rats (3.36 ± 0.42 μm−1) and humans (3.11 ± 0.26 μm−1). To demonstrate that PEMP can be used to determine foot process morphology also in affected animals, we measured the FSD in palladin-knockout mice on a 129S1 genetic background compared to wild-type littermates. Taken together, we established a method for the quick and exact quantification of podocyte foot process morphology which can be applied to diagnosis and basic research

Arp3 controls the podocyte architecture at the kidney filtration barrier

Podocytes, highly specialized epithelial cells, build the outer part of the kidney filtration barrier and withstand high mechanical forces through a complex network of cellular protrusions. Here, we show that Arp2/3-dependent actin polymerization controls actomyosin contractility and focal adhesion maturation of podocyte protrusions and thereby regulates formation, maintenance, and capacity to adapt to mechanical requirements of the filtration barrier. We find that N-WASP-Arp2/3 define the development of complex arborized podocyte protrusions in vitro and in vivo. Loss of dendritic actin networks results in a pronounced activation of the actomyosin cytoskeleton and the generation of over-maturated but less efficient adhesion, leading to detachment of podocytes. Our data provide a model to explain podocyte protrusion morphology and their mechanical stability based on a tripartite relationship between actin polymerization, contractility, and adhesion

Untersuchung des Einflusses von Palladin auf das Aktinzytoskelett von Podozyten

Für eine intakte Filtration des Blutes sind hochspezialisierte Epithelzellen in den Glomeruli der Nieren, die Podozyten, essentiell. Der Verlust oder die Schädigung dieser postmitotischen Epithelzellen bzw. morphologische Veränderungen der komplex geformten Fortsätze dieser Zellen sind die häufigsten Ursachen für den Verlust der Filtrationsfähigkeit der Nieren. Diese besondere 3D-Morphologie der Podozyten hängt entscheidend vom Aktinzytoskelett und von Aktin-bindenden Proteinen ab. Aus der Literatur weiß man, dass das Aktin-bindende Protein Palladin einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Nukleation bzw. Polymerisation von Aktinfilamenten ausübt und dass Palladin sowohl die Morphologie als auch die Dynamik von Zellen bestimmt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Rolle von Palladin hinsichtlich der Podozytenmorphologie und -funktion in vitro und in vivo erstmals untersucht. Mittels in vitro Experimenten an kultivierten Podozyten der Maus konnte gezeigt werden, dass ein Knockdown von Palladin zu einer deutlichen Abnahme der Aktinfilamente und kleineren Fokalkontakte führt. Interessanterweise hatte dies aber keinen Einfluss auf die Adhäsionfähigkeit der Podozyten, sogar unter mechanischer Bean¬spruchung. Ferner konnte gezeigt werden, dass Palladin einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Expression anderer essentieller Aktin-assoziierter Proteine, wie Synaptopodin und α-Aktinin-4, aufweist. Dass Palladin eine wichtige Rolle bei der Bildung und Stabilität von Aktinfilamenten spielt, konnte durch die Inkubation von kultivierten Palladin Knockdown-Podozyten mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren der Aktin-Polymerisation gezeigt werden. Die quantitative Auswertung mit Hilfe der Software F_Seg zeigte, dass Palladin Knockdown-Podozyten nach der Inkubation deutlich weniger Aktinfilamente und mehr Aktin-Cluster im Vergleich zu den Kontrollen aufweisen. Der Einsatz eines Migrations-Assays zeigte zudem, dass kultivierte Palladin Knockdown-Podozyten schneller migrieren und vermehrt dynamische Strukturen wie Lamellipodien und sogenannte Ring-Like-Structures (RiLiS) ausbilden. Um den Einfluss von Palladin auf Podozyten in vivo zu untersuchen, wurden Mäuse generiert, bei denen Palladin spezifisch in den Podozyten ausgeknockt ist. Analysen der Glomeruli-Morphologie dieser Tiere mit Hilfe der Immunfluoreszenz-, Superresolution- und Elektronenmikroskopie (Raster- und Transmissionsmikros-kopie) zeigten eindeutig, dass die glomerulären Kapillaren stark erweitert waren und sich ein stark vergrößerter sub-podozytärer Raum ausgebildet hatte. Ferner waren die für die Filtration des Blutes maßgeblichen Fortsätze der Podozyten stark verbreitert und die Expression des essentiellen Schlitzmembranproteins Nephrin nach dem Knockout von Palladin signifikant reduziert. Durch den Einsatz eines nephrotoxischen Serums wurde eine Glomerulonephritis induziert, die bei Podozyten-spezifischen Palladin-Knockout Mäusen zu einer stärkeren Schädigung der Glomeruli im Vergleich zu den Kontrolltieren führte. Dies deutet auf eine essentielle Rolle von Palladin für die Morphologie und Funktion der Filtrationsbarriere hin. Des Weiteren konnte anhand von Nierenbiopsien nachgewiesen werden, dass die Palladin-Expression bei Patienten, die an einer fokal segmentalen Glomerulosklerose bzw. an der diabetischen Nephropathie erkrankt waren, im Vergleich zu den Kontrollnieren deutlich verringert ist. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit, dass Palladin sowohl in vitro als auch in vivo einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf das Aktin-zytoskelett der Podozyten und somit auf die Funktion dieser hochspezialisierten Epithelzelle hat.A highly specialized epithelial cell type in the kidney, the podocyte, is essential for proper blood filtration. Detachment of these postmitotic epithelial cells or morphological changes of podocyte foot processes that are attached to the outer aspect of the capillaries in the filter unit of the kidney - the glomerulus - are the most common causes for a loss of the size selectivity of the filtration barrier. This results in the excretion of high molecular weight proteins via the urine. The morphology of the podocyte foot processes is critically dependent on an intact actin cytoskeleton and on actin-binding proteins. Since it is well-known that the actin-binding protein palladin is important for actin nucleation and polymerization as well as for the stability of the actin cytoskeleton, we studied the influence of palladin on podocyte morphology and function in vitro and in vivo. In vitro experiments of cultured mouse podocytes showed that the knockdown of palladin resulted in a significant reduction of actin filaments and the formation of smaller focal adhesions. However, we saw no effect on the adhesion of podocytes under mechanical stress. However, we found that palladin is essential for the expression of other important and podocyte-specific proteins like synaptopodin and α-actinin-4. To reveal the role of palladin for the formation and stability of actin filaments, cultured palladin knockdown-podocytes were treated with inhibitors of actin polymerization. Quantitative analysis using the software F_Seg showed significantly fewer actin filaments and more actin-clusters in palladin knockdown podocytes after incubation with the inhibitors compared to the controls. Migration-assays showed further that cultured palladin knockdown-podocytes migrated faster and had more dynamic structures like lamellipodia and so called ring-like-structures (RiLiS). To investigate the influence of palladin in podocytes in vivo, mice were generated with a specific knockout of palladin in podocytes. Examinations of glomeruli morphology using immunofluorescence, super-resolution and electron microscopy (scanning and transmission microscopy) showed that the glomerular capillaries were highly dilated and had an enlarged sub-podocyte space. In addition, podocyte foot processes, were significantly broadened and the expression of the transmembrane protein nephrin, an essential component of the slit membrane, was significantly reduced after the knockout of palladin. To challenge podocytes in vivo, a specific podocyte-related kidney damage was induced by the injection of a nephrotoxic serum. We found an increase of damaged glomeruli in podocyte-specific palladin-knockout mice compared to the controls. This suggests an essential role of palladin for the morphology and function of the glomerulus. Moreover, renal biopsies showed a significant reduction of palladin in patients with podocyte-related diseases compared to controls. In summary, the results of this work show that palladin plays an important role for the dynamics and morphology of the actin cytoskeleton of podocytes in vitro and in vivo and further influences the severity of a podocyte-related disorder in mice

MiR‐21 is up‐regulated in urinary exosomes of chronic kidney disease patients and after glomerular injury

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Super‐resolved local recruitment of CLDN5 to filtration slits implicates a direct relationship with podocyte foot process effacement

International audienceUnder healthy conditions, foot processes of neighbouring podocytes are interdigitating and connected by an electron-dense slit diaphragm. Besides slit diaphragm proteins, typical adherens junction proteins are also found to be expressed at this cell-cell junction. It is therefore considered as a highly specialized type of adherens junction. During podocyte injury, podocyte foot processes lose their characteristic 3D structure and the filtration slits typical meandering structure gets linearized. It is still under debate how this change of structure leads to the phenomenon of proteinuria. Using super-resolution 3D-structured illumination microscopy, we observed a spatially restricted up-regulation of the tight junction protein claudin-5 (CLDN5) in areas where podocyte processes of patients suffering from minimal change disease (MCD), focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) as well as in murine nephrotoxic serum (NTS) nephritis and uninephrectomy DOCA-salt hypertension models, were locally injured. CLDN5/nephrin ratios in human glomerulopathies and NTS-treated mice were significantly higher compared to controls. In patients, the CLDN5/nephrin ratio is significantly correlated with the filtration slit density as a foot process effacement marker, confirming a direct association of local CLDN5 up-regulation in injured foot processes. Moreover, CLDN5 up-regulation was observed in some areas of high filtration slit density, suggesting that CLND5 up-regulation preceded the changes of foot processes. Therefore, CLDN5 could serve as a biomarker predicting early foot process effacement

The ShGlomAssay Combines High-Throughput Drug Screening With Downstream Analyses and Reveals the Protective Role of Vitamin D3 and Calcipotriol on Podocytes

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health burden affecting more than 500 million people worldwide. Podocytopathies are the main cause for the majority of CKD cases due to pathogenic morphological as well as molecular biological alterations of postmitotic podocytes. Podocyte de-differentiation is associated with foot process effacement subsequently leading to proteinuria. Since currently no curative drugs are available, high throughput screening methods using a small number of animals are a promising and essential tool to identify potential drugs against CKD in the near future. Our study presents the implementation of the already established mouse GlomAssay as a semi-automated high-throughput screening method—shGlomAssay—allowing the analysis of several hundreds of FDA-verified compounds in combination with downstream pathway analysis like transcriptomic and proteomic analyses from the same samples, using a small number of animals. In an initial prescreening we have identified vitamin D3 and its analog calcipotriol to be protective on podocytes. Furthermore, by using RT-qPCR, Western blot, and RNA sequencing, we found that mRNA and protein expression of nephrin, the vitamin D receptor and specific podocyte markers were significantly up-regulated due to vitamin D3- and calcipotriol-treatment. In contrast, kidney injury markers were significantly down-regulated. Additionally, we found that vitamin D3 and calcipotriol have had neither influence on the expression of the miR-21 and miR-30a nor on miR-125a/b, a miRNA described to regulate the vitamin D receptor. In summary, we advanced the established mouse GlomAssay to a semi-automated high-throughput assay and combined it with downstream analysis techniques by using only a minimum number of animals. Hereby, we identified the vitamin D signaling pathway as podocyte protective and to be counteracting their de-differentiation

The Role of Palladin in Podocytes

International audienceBackground Podocyte loss and effacement of interdigitating podocyte foot processes are the major cause of a leaky filtration barrier and ESRD. Because the complex three-dimensional morphology of podocytes depends on the actin cytoskeleton, we studied the role in podocytes of the actin bundling protein palladin, which is highly expressed therein. Methods We knocked down palladin in cultured podocytes by siRNA transfection or in zebrafish embryos by morpholino injection and studied the effects by immunofluorescence and live imaging. We also investigated kidneys of mice with podocyte-specific knockout of palladin (PodoPalld−/− mice) by immunofluorescence and ultrastructural analysis and kidney biopsy specimens from patients by immunostaining for palladin. Results Compared with control-treated podocytes, palladin-knockdown podocytes had reduced actin filament staining, smaller focal adhesions, and downregulation of the podocyte-specific proteins synaptopodin and α -actinin-4. Furthermore, palladin-knockdown podocytes were more susceptible to disruption of the actin cytoskeleton with cytochalasin D, latrunculin A, or jasplakinolide and showed altered migration dynamics. In zebrafish embryos, palladin knockdown compromised the morphology and dynamics of epithelial cells at an early developmental stage. Compared with PodoPalld+/+ controls, PodoPalld−/− mice developed glomeruli with a disturbed morphology, an enlarged subpodocyte space, mild effacement, and significantly reduced expression of nephrin and vinculin. Furthermore, nephrotoxic serum injection led to significantly higher levels of proteinuria in PodoPalld−/− mice than in controls. Kidney biopsy specimens from patients with diabetic nephropathy and FSGS showed downregulation of palladin in podocytes as well. Conclusions Palladin has an important role in podocyte function in vitro and in vivo

High salt diet‐induced proximal tubular phenotypic changes and sodium‐glucose cotransporter‐2 expression are coordinated by cold shock Y‐box binding protein‐1

International audienceHigh salt diet (HSD) is a hallmark of blood pressure elevations, weight gain and diabetes onset in the metabolic syndrome. In kidney, compensatory mechanisms are activated to balance salt turnover and maintain homeostasis. Data on the long-term effects of HSD with respect to tubular cell functions and kidney architecture that exclude confounding indirect blood pressure effects are scarce. Additionally we focus on cold shock Y-box binding protein-1 as a tubular cell protective factor. A HSD model (4% NaCl in chow; 1% NaCl in water) was compared to normal salt diet (NSD, standard chow) over 16 months using wild type mice and an inducible conditional whole body knockout for cold shock Y-box binding protein-1 (BL6J/N, Ybx1). HSD induced no difference in blood pressure over 16 months, comparing NSD/HSD and Ybx1 wild type/knockout. Nevertheless, marked phenotypic changes were detected. Glucosuria and subnephrotic albuminuria ensued in wild type animals under HSD, which subsided in Ybx1-deficient animals. At the same time megalin receptors were upregulated. The sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) was completely downregulated in wild type HSD animals that developed glucosuria. In Ybx1 knockouts, expression of AQP1 and SGLT2 was maintained under HSD; proximal tubular widening and glomerular tubularization developed. Concurrently, amino aciduria of neutral and hydrophobic amino acids was seen. In vitro translation confirmed that YB-1 translationally represses Sglt2 transcripts. Our data reveal profound effects of HSD primarily within glomeruli and proximal tubular segments. YB-1 is regulated by HSD and orchestrates HSD-dependent changes; notably, sets reabsorption thresholds for amino acids, proteins and glucose

The transcription factor Dach1 is essential for podocyte function

Dedifferentiation and loss of podocytes are the major cause of chronic kidney disease. Dach1, a transcription factor that is essential for cell fate, was found in genome-wide association studies to be associated with the glomerular filtration rate. We found that podocytes express high levels of Dach1 in\ua0vivo and to a much lower extent in\ua0vitro. Parietal epithelial cells (PECs) that are still under debate to be a type of progenitor cell for podocytes expressed Dach1 only at low levels. The transfection of PECs with a plasmid encoding for Dach1 induced the expression of synaptopodin, a podocyte-specific protein, demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and Western blot. Furthermore, synaptopodin was located along actin fibres in a punctate pattern in Dach1-expressing PECs comparable with differentiated podocytes. Moreover, dedifferentiating podocytes of isolated glomeruli showed a significant reduction in the expression of Dach1 together with synaptopodin after 9\ua0days in cell culture. To study the role of Dach1 in\ua0vivo, we used the zebrafish larva as an animal model. Knockdown of the zebrafish ortholog Dachd by morpholino injection into fertilized eggs resulted in a severe renal phenotype. The glomeruli of the zebrafish larvae showed morphological changes of the glomerulus accompanied by down-regulation of nephrin and leakage of the filtration barrier. Interestingly, glomeruli of biopsies from patients suffering from diabetic nephropathy showed also a significant reduction of Dach1 and synaptopodin in contrast to control biopsies. Taken together, Dach1 is a transcription factor that is important for podocyte differentiation and proper kidney function