Differential Effects of Vpr on Single-cycle and Spreading HIV-1 Infections in CD4+ T-cells and Dendritic Cells

The Vpr protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) contributes to viral replication in non-dividing cells, specifically those of the myeloid lineage. However, the effects of Vpr in enhancing HIV-1 infection in dendritic cells have not been extensively investigated. Here, we evaluated the role of Vpr during infection of highly permissive peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and CD4+ T-cells and compared it to that of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs), which are less susceptible to HIV-1 infection. Infections of dividing PBMCs and non-dividing MDDCs were carried out with single-cycle and replication-competent HIV-1 encoding intact Vpr or Vpr-defective mutants. In contrast to previous findings, we observed that single-cycle HIV-1 infection of both PBMCs and MDDCs was significantly enhanced in the presence of Vpr when the viral stocks were carefully characterized and titrated. HIV-1 DNA quantification revealed that Vpr only enhanced the reverse transcription and nuclear import processes in single-cycle HIV-1 infected MDDCs, but not in CD4+ T-cells. However, a significant enhancement in HIV-1 gag mRNA expression was observed in both CD4+ T-cells and MDDCs in the presence of Vpr. Furthermore, Vpr complementation into HIV-1 virions did not affect single-cycle viral infection of MDDCs, suggesting that newly synthesized Vpr plays a significant role to facilitate single-cycle HIV-1 infection. Over the course of a spreading infection, Vpr significantly enhanced replication-competent HIV-1 infection in MDDCs, while it modestly promoted viral infection in activated PBMCs. Quantification of viral DNA in replication-competent HIV-1 infected PBMCs and MDDCs revealed similar levels of reverse transcription products, but increased nuclear import in the presence of Vpr independent of the cell types. Taken together, our results suggest that Vpr has differential effects on single-cycle and spreading HIV-1 infections, which are dependent on the permissiveness of the target cell

Exposed Hydrophobic Residues in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpr Helix-1 Are Important for Cell Cycle Arrest and Cell Death

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) accessory protein viral protein R (Vpr) is a major determinant for virus-induced G2/M cell cycle arrest and cytopathicity. Vpr is thought to perform these functions through the interaction with partner proteins. The NMR structure of Vpr revealed solvent exposed hydrophobic amino acids along helices 1 and 3 of Vpr, which could be putative protein binding domains. We previously showed that the hydrophobic patch along helix-3 was important for G2/M blockade and cytopathicity. Mutations of the exposed hydrophobic residues along helix-1 were found to reduce Vpr-induced cell cycle arrest and cell death as well. The levels of toxicity during virion delivery of Vpr correlated with G2/M arrest. Thus, the exposed hydrophobic amino acids in the amino-terminal helix-1 are important for the cell cycle arrest and cytopathicity functions of Vpr

Cyclin T1-Dependent Genes in Activated CD4+ T and Macrophage Cell Lines Appear Enriched in HIV-1 Co-Factors

HIV-1 is dependent upon cellular co-factors to mediate its replication cycle in CD4+ T cells and macrophages, the two major cell types infected by the virus in vivo. One critical co-factor is Cyclin T1, a subunit of a general RNA polymerase II elongation factor known as P-TEFb. Cyclin T1 is targeted directly by the viral Tat protein to activate proviral transcription. Cyclin T1 is up-regulated when resting CD4+ T cells are activated and during macrophage differentiation or activation, conditions that are also necessary for high levels of HIV-1 replication. Because Cyclin T1 is a subunit of a transcription factor, the up-regulation of Cyclin T1 in these cells results in the induction of cellular genes, some of which might be HIV-1 co-factors. Using shRNA depletions of Cyclin T1 and transcriptional profiling, we identified 54 cellular mRNAs that appear to be Cyclin T1-dependent for their induction in activated CD4+ T Jurkat T cells and during differentiation and activation of MM6 cells, a human monocytic cell line. The promoters for these Cyclin T1-dependent genes (CTDGs) are over-represented in two transcription factor binding sites, SREBP1 and ARP1. Notably, 10 of these CTDGs have been reported to be involved in HIV-1 replication, a significant over-representation of such genes when compared to randomly generated lists of 54 genes (p value<0.00021). The results of siRNA depletion and dominant-negative protein experiments with two CTDGs identified here, CDK11 and Casein kinase 1 gamma 1, suggest that these genes are involved either directly or indirectly in HIV-1 replication. It is likely that the 54 CTDGs identified here include novel HIV-1 co-factors. The presence of CTDGs in the protein space that was available for HIV-1 to sample during its evolution and acquisition of Tat function may provide an explanation for why CTDGs are enriched in viral co-factors

Revisiting HIV-1 uncoating

HIV uncoating is defined as the loss of viral capsid that occurs within the cytoplasm of infected cells before entry of the viral genome into the nucleus. It is an obligatory step of HIV-1 early infection and accompanies the transition between reverse transcription complexes (RTCs), in which reverse transcription occurs, and pre-integration complexes (PICs), which are competent to integrate into the host genome. The study of the nature and timing of HIV-1 uncoating has been paved with difficulties, particularly as a result of the vulnerability of the capsid assembly to experimental manipulation. Nevertheless, recent studies of capsid structure, retroviral restriction and mechanisms of nuclear import, as well as the recent expansion of technical advances in genome-wide studies and cell imagery approaches, have substantially changed our understanding of HIV uncoating. Although early work suggested that uncoating occurs immediately following viral entry in the cell, thus attributing a trivial role for the capsid in infected cells, recent data suggest that uncoating occurs several hours later and that capsid has an all-important role in the cell that it infects: for transport towards the nucleus, reverse transcription and nuclear import. Knowing that uncoating occurs at a later stage suggests that the viral capsid interacts extensively with the cytoskeleton and other cytoplasmic components during its transport to the nucleus, which leads to a considerable reassessment of our efforts to identify potential therapeutic targets for HIV therapy. This review discusses our current understanding of HIV uncoating, the functional interplay between infectivity and timely uncoating, as well as exposing the appropriate methods to study uncoating and addressing the many questions that remain unanswered

Using death to one's advantage: HIV modulation of apoptosis

Infection by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is associated with an early immune dysfunction and progressive destruction of CD4+ T lymphocytes. This progressive disappearance of T cells leads to a lack of immune control of HIV replication and to the development of immune deficiency resulting in the increased occurrence of opportunistic infections associated with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). The HIV-induced, premature destruction of lymphocytes is associated with the continuous production of HIV viral proteins that modulate apoptotic pathways. The viral proteins, such as Tat, Env, and Nef, are associated with chronic immune activation and the continuous induction of apoptotic factors. Viral protein expression predisposes lymphocytes, particularly CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, and antigen-presenting cells, to evolve into effectors of apoptosis and as a result, to lead to the destruction of healthy, non-infected T cells. Tat and Nef, along with Vpu, can also protect HIV-infected cells from apoptosis by increasing anti-apoptotic proteins and down- regulating cell surface receptors recognized by immune system cells. This review will discuss the validity of the apoptosis hypothesis in HIV disease and the potential mechanism(s) that HIV proteins perform in the progressive T cell depletion observed in AIDS pathogenesis. Originally published Leukemia, Vol. 15, No. 3, Mar 200

HIV infection of non-dividing cells: a divisive problem

Understanding how lentiviruses can infect terminally differentiated, non-dividing cells has proven a very complex and controversial problem. It is, however, a problem worth investigating, for it is central to HIV-1 transmission and AIDS pathogenesis. Here I shall attempt to summarise what is our current understanding for HIV-1 infection of non-dividing cells. In some cases I shall also attempt to make sense of controversies in the field and advance one or two modest proposals

Using viral vectors as gene transfer tools (Cell Biology and Toxicology Special Issue: ETCS-UK 1 day meeting on genetic manipulation of cells)

In recent years, the development of powerful viral gene transfer techniques has greatly facilitated the study of gene function. This review summarises some of the viral delivery systems routinely used to mediate gene transfer into cell lines, primary cell cultures and in whole animal models. The systems described were originally discussed at a 1-day European Tissue Culture Society (ETCS-UK) workshop that was held at University College London on 1st April 2009. Recombinant-deficient viral vectors (viruses that are no longer able to replicate) are used to transduce dividing and post-mitotic cells, and they have been optimised to mediate regulatable, powerful, long-term and cell-specific expression. Hence, viral systems have become very widely used, especially in the field of neurobiology. This review introduces the main categories of viral vectors, focusing on their initial development and highlighting modifications and improvements made since their introduction. In particular, the use of specific promoters to restrict expression, translational enhancers and regulatory elements to boost expression from a single virion and the development of regulatable systems is described

Macrophage signaling in HIV-1 infection

The human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) is a member of the lentivirus genus. The virus does not rely exclusively on the host cell machinery, but also on viral proteins that act as molecular switches during the viral life cycle which play significant functions in viral pathogenesis, notably by modulating cell signaling. The role of HIV-1 proteins (Nef, Tat, Vpr, and gp120) in modulating macrophage signaling has been recently unveiled. Accessory, regulatory, and structural HIV-1 proteins interact with signaling pathways in infected macrophages. In addition, exogenous Nef, Tat, Vpr, and gp120 proteins have been detected in the serum of HIV-1 infected patients. Possibly, these proteins are released by infected/apoptotic cells. Exogenous accessory regulatory HIV-1 proteins are able to enter macrophages and modulate cellular machineries including those that affect viral transcription. Furthermore HIV-1 proteins, e.g., gp120, may exert their effects by interacting with cell surface membrane receptors, especially chemokine co-receptors. By activating the signaling pathways such as NF-kappaB, MAP kinase (MAPK) and JAK/STAT, HIV-1 proteins promote viral replication by stimulating transcription from the long terminal repeat (LTR) in infected macrophages; they are also involved in macrophage-mediated bystander T cell apoptosis. The role of HIV-1 proteins in the modulation of macrophage signaling will be discussed in regard to the formation of viral reservoirs and macrophage-mediated T cell apoptosis during HIV-1 infection

HIV Integration Targeting: A Pathway Involving Transportin-3 and the Nuclear Pore Protein RanBP2

Genome-wide siRNA screens have identified host cell factors important for efficient HIV infection, among which are nuclear pore proteins such as RanBP2/Nup358 and the karyopherin Transportin-3/TNPO3. Analysis of the roles of these proteins in the HIV replication cycle suggested that correct trafficking through the pore may facilitate the subsequent integration step. Here we present data for coupling between these steps by demonstrating that depletion of Transportin-3 or RanBP2 altered the terminal step in early HIV replication, the selection of chromosomal sites for integration. We found that depletion of Transportin-3 and RanBP2 altered integration targeting for HIV. These knockdowns reduced HIV integration frequency in gene-dense regions and near gene-associated features, a pattern that differed from that reported for depletion of the HIV integrase binding cofactor Psip1/Ledgf/p75. MLV integration was not affected by the Transportin-3 knockdown. Using siRNA knockdowns and integration targeting analysis, we also implicated several additional nuclear proteins in proper target site selection. To map viral determinants of integration targeting, we analyzed a chimeric HIV derivative containing MLV gag, and found that the gag replacement phenocopied the Transportin-3 and RanBP2 knockdowns. Thus, our data support a model in which Gag-dependent engagement of the proper transport and nuclear pore machinery mediate trafficking of HIV complexes to sites of integration