Production Challenges and Sustainability of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes in Zimbabwe

Smallholder irrigation schemes in most developing countries, including Zimbabwe have proved to be unsustainable beyond external assistance. The history of smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe indicate these irrigation schemes suffered considerable neglect and were a mixture of success and failure during the post independence era. Their importance in the semi-arid regions cannot be over emphasized yet they the smallholder farmers do not seem to give them the value they deserve. This study was aimed at unravelling the factors influencing the production levels and the sustainability of smallholder irrigation schemes. Three smallholder irrigation schemes from the southern Eastern Low-veld of Zimbabwe were purposively selected for the study. A total of 130 farmers were interviewed using questionnaires, 11 key informant interviews and 3 Farmer Group Discussions (FGDs) with farmers were conducted in the 3 schemes. The study revealed that farmers had unsustainable sources of livelihood and poor asset base that compromised their capacity to make meaningful investments into the schemes. Production was unsustainably low due to limited access to agricultural inputs (only 40 – 67% of farmers had access to fertilizers and pesticides), inactivity in the input supply chain (the dominance of government and NGOs in the supply chain is biased towards specific farmer groups thus disadvantaging other groups), limited access to irrigation water (due to electricity load shedding and reduced discharge of the Save river in spring) and lack of credit facilities (0% farmers had access to bank loans and 17% accessed loans from input suppliers). The low application rates of fertilizers and the low value crops grown in the scheme showed that the farmers were still to graduate from subsistence to commercial or market oriented agriculture. Poor agricultural output markets prevented farmers from growing some high value crops and were a strong disincentive for commercialising the production in the schemes. Keywords: production level, smallholder irrigation schemes, sustainabilit

Predicting toxic heavy metal movements in upper Sanyati catchment in the midlands province in Zimbabwe

The study assessed toxic heavy metal concentrations in the upper Sanyati catchment in the Midlands Province in Zimbabwe and predicted their movements and potential impacts on ground water quality. Topographic surveying was used to determine borehole locations, elevations, hydraulic conductivity and water yields. Monthly ground water samples were analyzed to determine concentrations of Cr, Pb, Cd and Ni for a period of two-years. The results obtained for the wet season showed mean concentration levels of Cr, Pb, Cd and Ni at 0.25, 0.015, 0.042 and 0.031mg/L respectively. Dry season mean concentration levels for Cr, Pb, Cd and Ni were 0.15, 0.07, 0.06 and 0.025 mg/L respectively.  Water samples from boreholes located in areas where mining, mineral processing and agricultural activities were dominant, yielded the highest values of toxic heavy metals. Dilution Attenuation Factor (DAF) for each toxic heavy metal was calculated to observe metal behaviour along the contaminant path for each season. The results showed seasonal variation in the spatial distribution of each toxic heavy metal during the wet season between October to March and during the dry season between April to September. Overall, research results showed that concentrations of Cr, Pb, Cd and Ni were above the standard limits set by the World Health Organization.Key Words: Heavy metals; Hydraulic conductivity; Ground water transportation; Contamination; Attenuation; Photometry

Grain Yield Responses of Selected Crop Varieties at Two Pairs of Temperature Analogue Sites in Sub-humid and Semi-arid Areas of Zimbabwe

Climate analogues, based on 30 years meteorological data, were identified in smallholder areas of Zimbabwe. The sites were Kadoma (722 mm annual mean rainfall; 21.8 °C annual mean temperature) which was the higher temperature analogue site for Mazowe (842 mm annual mean rainfall; 18.2 °C annual mean temperature) for wetter areas, and Chiredzi (541 mm annual mean rainfall; 21.3 °C annual mean temperature) which was the higher temperature analogue site for Matobo (567 mm annual mean rainfall: 18.4 °C annual mean temperature) for drier areas. At each site and for each crop, three varieties were laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The trials were conducted for two seasons (2011/2012 and 2012/2013). Maize and groundnut yields were higher at the cooler and wet sites and decreased significantly at the warmer and dry sites. In case of sorghum and cowpea, yields at the hotter site remained high implying that these crops are more tolerant to warmer temperatures predicted for 2050. At the drier sites, yields for all crops were significantly lower at the hotter site implying that crop production in the 2050s climate of the cooler site will be more difficult. The hypothesis that with increasing surface temperatures in a climate change scenario short duration genotypes can perform better compared with long duration was not confirmed

Grain yield of selected crops at four climate analogue locations in Zimbabwe

Predicted warmer climates are likely to negatively affect production systems and expose smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, whose adaptive capacity is limited mainly due to poverty, to food insecurity. We studied the performance of selected varieties representing short, medium and long duration growth periods of four crops (maize (Zea mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) at two pairs (wet and dry) of 2050s climate analogue sites. Climate analogues, based on 30 years metereological data, were identified in smallholder areas of Zimbabwe. The sites were Kadoma (722 mm annual mean rainfall; 21.8oC annual mean temperature) which was the higher-temperature analogue site for Mazowe (842 mm annual mean rainfall; 18.2oC annual mean temperature) for wetter areas, and Chiredzi (541 mm annual mean rainfall; 21.3oC annual mean temperature) which was the higher-temperature analogue site for Matobo (567 mm annual mean rainfall: 18.4oC annual mean temperature) for drier areas. First season (2011/12) results showed that for the wetter pair, maize and groundnut grain yields were significantly higher at the cooler site (Mazowe). Sorghum yields were not significantly different between the sites and there was no grain yield for cowpea at the cooler site due to a fungal disease. Varietal yield differences were only significantly higher (P<0.05) at the cooler site for groundnut where the short duration variety had the highest yield (3809 kg/ha) and the medium duration variety the lowest yield (1420 kg/ha), compared with 140-355 kg/ha at the hotter site where growth was poor for all varieties. For the drier sites, maize, sorghum and cowpea grain yields were higher at the cooler site (Matobo) compared with the hotter sites (Chiredzi) but varietal differences were not significant. Results for the second season (2012/13) will be presented

The physic-chemical assessment of urban river basin using macroinvertebrate indices for the environmental monitoring of urban streams

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The major sources of pollution along the Mukuvisi River are industrial effluents from Msasa, Graniteside, and Southerton industrial sites, sewage effluent from Firle sewage works, pesticide and fertilizer runoff from Pension and surrounding farms, and domestic and diffuse pollution from residential areas. The primary objective of this study was to assess the impact of point and non-point pollution sources on macroinvertebrates variability and investigate the seasonal water quality deterioration along the Mukuvisi River. To evaluate macroinvertebrate community diversity using South African Scoring System 5 protocol for rapid bioassessment of water quality. The combined application of benthic macroinvertebrates and physic-chemical parameters was the focus of this research to validate the water quality status of the urban River systems concerning emerging pollutants in urban areas.METHODS: According to the Harare municipality pollution control strategy and surveillance, only twelve accessible sampling points were chosen along the river. Macroinvertebrate samples and physic-chemical measurements were collected once or twice a month, according to the city of Harare’s sampling schedule. The ancillary information, temperature, pH, and conductivity were measured on-site with a mercury bulb thermometer, a pH meter, and a conductivity meter, respectively. The standard South African Scoring System 5 sampling protocol was used for the sampling and identification of the macroinvertebrates community.FINDINGS: The early assessments showed that water pollution was, in the 1st place and as a primary issue, a biological matter, and its primary effects could have been traced to living organisms. Eutrophication in Manyame catchment, Harare, Zimbabwe is subjected to prolonged and cumulative ecosystem stress because of human activities, sewage disposal, and industrial discharges, among other pollution sources. The Phosphorus-P, Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Ammonia-NH3 (from 0, 6.9, 118, and 0 to 3.8, 81.9, 840, and 31 mg/L respectively) concentration increases downstream in both seasons. The Dissolved Oxygen saturation was 75% and 67% upstream in the dry-and-wet season and was reduced to 0% downstream in both seasons. The evaluation of macroinvertebrate diversity provided evidence that Mukuvisi River water was polluted based on the South African Scoring System, especially in the dry season.CONCLUSIONS: The physic-chemical parameters were significantly related to macroinvertebrates diversity. In the assessment of river water quality, both macroinvertebrate indices and physio-chemical parameters can be sampled together to avoid bias. The results indicated that human activities from the upstream were inducing water pollution. Industries need to adhere to the wastewater discharge guidelines

CONSTRAINTS TO CROP PRODUCTION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES OF SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN SEMI-ARID CENTRAL AND WESTERN ZIMBABWE

Smallholder farmer agricultural productivity in developing countries is limited by diverse biotic and abiotic constraints. They have, however, developed adaptive strategies to cope with some of these constraints, thereby strengthening their resilience to various stresses. The objective of this study was to establish crop production constraints faced by smallholder farmers in semi-arid Lower Gweru and Lupane areas of Zimbabwe, as well as coping and adaptation strategies used. Focus group discussions and structured interviews were used to collect data. High rainfall variability (CV = 0.30) had the highest ranking (most important), followed by shortage of inputs collectively, from focus group discussions. Farmers adapted to rainfall variability mostly through choice of crop and planting dates, adjusting the levels of inputs (fertiliser in particular) they used, as well as by resorting to cropping in areas with a high water table. Sixty percent of the farmers in both communal areas experienced shortage of planting seed, while shortage of fertiliser was reported by 75 and 30% of the farmers in Lower Gweru and Lupane, respectively. Labour was a major constraint to 65 and 20% of the farmers in both locations, respectively; while draft power shortage affected 50 and 25% of the farmers. About 50% of the farmers in Lupane reported the problem of crop damage by elephants. The HIV and AIDs pandemic and poor soils were also reported during focus group discussions. Farmers coped with input shortages by hiring and sharing resources. They reduced damage from elephants by harvesting their crops early. The effect of HIV/AIDs weakened the labour force and some communities in the study areas helped affected families by working in their fields.La productivit\ue9 agricole des petits paysans dans les pays en d\ue9veloppement est limit\ue9\ue9 par de diverses contraintes biotiques et abiotiques. Ils ont, cependant d\ue9velopp\ue9 des strategies adaptatives pour faire face \ue0 ces contraintes, consolidant ainsi leur resilience aux divers stress. L\u2019objectif de cette \ue9tude \ue9tait d\u2019\ue9tablir les contraintes de la production agricole auxquelles font face les petits paysans dans les basses regions semi-arides de Gweru et Lupane au Zimbaw\ue9, ainsi que les strategies d\u2019adaptation utilis\ue9es. Des discussions de groupes et des entretiens structur\ue9s ont \ue9t\ue9 utlis\ue9s pour la collecte des donn\ue9es. La grande variabilit\ue9 de pluies (CV = 0, 30) a re\ue7u le rang le plus \ue9lev\ue9 (le plus important); suivie de la p\ue9nurie g\ue9n\ue9rale d\u2019intrants, selon les discussions de groupes. Les paysans se sont adapt\ue9s aux variabilit\ue9es de pluies \ue0 travers le choix des cultures et des dates de semis, en ajustant les niveaux d\u2019intrants (engrais en particulier) qu\u2019ils utilisaient, ainsi qu\u2019en se recourant aux espaces de production avec une nappe phr\ue9atique affleurant la surface du sol. Soixante pourcent des paysans dans les deux zones communales rencontraient la p\ue9nurie des semences, alors que la penurie en engrais \ue9tait rapport\ue9e par 75 et 30% des paysans de la basse Gweru et Lupane, respectivement. La main d\u2019oeuvre a \ue9t\ue9 une contrainte majeure pour 65 et 20% des paysans dans les deux regions, respectivement; tandis que le manque de traction animale a affect\ue9 50 et 25% de producteurs. Environ 50% de producteurs au Lupane ont rapport\ue9 le probl\ue8me de destruction des plantes par les \ue9l\ue9phants. La pendemie du VIH/SIDA et la pauvret\ue9 des sols ont aussi \ue9t\ue9 rapport\ue9es pendant les discussions de groupes. Les producteurs se sont adapt\ue9s au manque d\u2019intrants en loyant et en partageant leurs ressources. Ils ont r\ue9duit les dommages caus\ue9s par les \ue9l\ue9phants en r\ue9coltant de fa\ue7on pr\ue9coce leur cultures. Les effets du VIH/SIDA ont affaibli la force de la main d\u2019oeuvre et certaines commaut\ue9s dans les milieux d\u2019\ue9tude ont aid\ue9 les familles affect\ue9es en travaillant dans leurs champs

A systematic review of school-based sexual health interventions to prevent STI/HIV in sub-Saharan Africa

Background The HIV/AIDS epidemic remains of global significance and there is a need to target (a) the adolescent age-groups in which most new infections occur; and (b) sub-Saharan Africa where the greatest burden of the epidemic lies. A focused systematic review of school-based sexual health interventions in sub-Saharan Africa to prevent HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) in this age group was therefore conducted. Methods Searches were conducted in Medline, Embase, Cinahl and PsychINFO according to agreed a priori criteria for studies published between 1986 and 2006. Further searches were conducted in UNAIDS and WHO (World Health Organization) websites, and 'Google'. Relevant journals were hand-searched and references cited in identified articles were followed up. Data extraction and quality assessment was carried out on studies selected for full text appraisal, and results were analysed and presented in narrative format. Results Some 1,020 possible titles and abstracts were found, 23 full text articles were critically appraised, and 12 articles (10 studies) reviewed, reflecting the paucity of published studies conducted relative to the magnitude of the HIV epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa. Knowledge and attitude-related outcomes were the most associated with statistically significant change. Behavioural intentions were more difficult to change and actual behaviour change was least likely to occur. Behaviour change in favour of abstinence and condom use appeared to be greatly influenced by pre-intervention sexual history. Conclusion There is a great need in sub-Saharan Africa for well-evaluated and effective school-based sexual health interventions

Genexpert MTB/RIF diagnostic and tuberculosis treatment initiation delays in Namibia

BACKGROUND : Early diagnosis and treatment of drug resistant tuberculosis are crucial in the control of the disease and treatment success. In Namibia, there is a gap in empirical data on the diagnosis and treatment initiation delay time since the roll-out of the GeneXpert MTB/RIF (Xpert) assay in 2017. This study aimed to determine Xpert pre-diagnosis and turnaround time at Namibian Institute of Pathology (NIP) as well as rifampicin resistant tuberculosis (RR-TB) treatment initiation delay on patients admitted at Katutura Intermediate Hospital TB clinic. METHODS : This was retrospective descriptive cross-sectional study which was conducted from 1 July 2018 to 31 March 2019. A total of seventy two participants comprising of twenty five RR-TB and forty seven non RR-TB patients were enrolled using consecutive sampling method. Laboratory information system (LIS) was utilized to determine Xpert median pre-analytical delay and turnaround time. Patients’ records and LIS were used to calculate median treatment initiation delay time post Xpert diagnosis. Data on continuous variables was summarized as median and interquartile range. RESULTS : The median pre-diagnostic, diagnostic and treatment initiation delay time were 7.5 (IQR: 0-14), 1 (IQR: 0-3) and 10 (IQR: 1-32) days respectively for RR-TB. For drug susceptible TB, the median pre-diagnostic, diagnostic and treatment initiation delay time were 5 (IQR: 1-8), 1 (IQR: 0-3) and 3 (IQR: 0-12) days respectively. Overall, median health system delay time was 21 (IQR: 2-32) days for RR-TB patients and 12 (IQR: 1-12) days for non RR-TB patients. CONCLUSION : Treatment initiation to appropriate second line regimes was long for many patients and may be attributable to poor interpretation of discordant results and increased number of RR-TB patients for treatment since Xpert adoption. Unnecessary referrals due to shortages of pulmonologists, cumbersome baseline investigations and outdated guidelines and policies could be the determinants of health system delay time. Interventions targeted at addressing identified factors should be implemented. Further studies should explore the actual treatment gap among RR-TB patients and further risk factors for delayed treatment.https://www.wjahr.comam2020School of Health Systems and Public Health (SHSPH

Influences on uptake of reproductive health services in Nsangi community of Uganda and their implications for cervical cancer screening

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Cervical cancer is the most common female cancer in Uganda. Over 80% of women diagnosed or referred with cervical cancer in Mulago national referral and teaching hospital have advanced disease. Plans are underway for systematic screening programmes based on visual inspection, as Pap smear screening is not feasible for this low resource country. Effectiveness of population screening programmes requires high uptake and for cervical cancer, minimal loss to follow up. Uganda has poor indicators of reproductive health (RH) services uptake; 10% postnatal care attendance, 23% contraceptive prevalence, and 38% skilled attendance at delivery. For antenatal attendance, attendance to one visit is 90%, but less than 50% for completion of care, i.e. three or more visits.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>We conducted a qualitative study using eight focus group discussions with a total of 82 participants (16 men, 46 women and 20 health workers). We aimed to better understand factors that influence usage of available reproductive health care services and how they would relate to cervical cancer screening, as well as identify feasible interventions to improve cervical cancer screening uptake.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Barriers identified after framework analysis included ignorance about cervical cancer, cultural constructs/beliefs about the illness, economic factors, domestic gender power relations, alternative authoritative sources of reproductive health knowledge, and unfriendly health care services. We discuss how these findings may inform future planned screening programmes in the Ugandan context.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Knowledge about cervical cancer among Ugandan women is very low. For an effective cervical cancer-screening programme, awareness about cervical cancer needs to be increased. Health planners need to note the power of the various authoritative sources of reproductive health knowledge such as paternal aunts (<it>Sengas</it>) and involve them in the awareness campaign. Cultural and economic issues dictate the perceived reluctance by men to participate in women's reproductive health issues; men in this community are, however, potential willing partners if appropriately informed. Health planners should address the loss of confidence in current health care units, as well as consider use of other cervical cancer screening delivery systems such as mobile clinics/camps.</p