Independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene, and improved complementary feeding, on child stunting and anaemia in rural Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: Child stunting reduces survival and impairs neurodevelopment. We tested the independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), and improved infant and young child feeding (IYCF) on stunting and anaemia in in Zimbabwe. METHODS: We did a cluster-randomised, community-based, 2 × 2 factorial trial in two rural districts in Zimbabwe. Clusters were defined as the catchment area of between one and four village health workers employed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Health and Child Care. Women were eligible for inclusion if they permanently lived in clusters and were confirmed pregnant. Clusters were randomly assigned (1:1:1:1) to standard of care (52 clusters), IYCF (20 g of a small-quantity lipid-based nutrient supplement per day from age 6 to 18 months plus complementary feeding counselling; 53 clusters), WASH (construction of a ventilated improved pit latrine, provision of two handwashing stations, liquid soap, chlorine, and play space plus hygiene counselling; 53 clusters), or IYCF plus WASH (53 clusters). A constrained randomisation technique was used to achieve balance across the groups for 14 variables related to geography, demography, water access, and community-level sanitation coverage. Masking of participants and fieldworkers was not possible. The primary outcomes were infant length-for-age Z score and haemoglobin concentrations at 18 months of age among children born to mothers who were HIV negative during pregnancy. These outcomes were analysed in the intention-to-treat population. We estimated the effects of the interventions by comparing the two IYCF groups with the two non-IYCF groups and the two WASH groups with the two non-WASH groups, except for outcomes that had an important statistical interaction between the interventions. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01824940. FINDINGS: Between Nov 22, 2012, and March 27, 2015, 5280 pregnant women were enrolled from 211 clusters. 3686 children born to HIV-negative mothers were assessed at age 18 months (884 in the standard of care group from 52 clusters, 893 in the IYCF group from 53 clusters, 918 in the WASH group from 53 clusters, and 991 in the IYCF plus WASH group from 51 clusters). In the IYCF intervention groups, the mean length-for-age Z score was 0·16 (95% CI 0·08-0·23) higher and the mean haemoglobin concentration was 2·03 g/L (1·28-2·79) higher than those in the non-IYCF intervention groups. The IYCF intervention reduced the number of stunted children from 620 (35%) of 1792 to 514 (27%) of 1879, and the number of children with anaemia from 245 (13·9%) of 1759 to 193 (10·5%) of 1845. The WASH intervention had no effect on either primary outcome. Neither intervention reduced the prevalence of diarrhoea at 12 or 18 months. No trial-related serious adverse events, and only three trial-related adverse events, were reported. INTERPRETATION: Household-level elementary WASH interventions implemented in rural areas in low-income countries are unlikely to reduce stunting or anaemia and might not reduce diarrhoea. Implementation of these WASH interventions in combination with IYCF interventions is unlikely to reduce stunting or anaemia more than implementation of IYCF alone. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, UK Department for International Development, Wellcome Trust, Swiss Development Cooperation, UNICEF, and US National Institutes of Health.The SHINE trial is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1021542 and OPP113707); UK Department for International Development; Wellcome Trust, UK (093768/Z/10/Z, 108065/Z/15/Z and 203905/Z/16/Z); Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation; US National Institutes of Health (2R01HD060338-06); and UNICEF (PCA-2017-0002)

A review of the cases done in the first six months of the male circumcision programme in Harare: An HIV intervention measure

Background: Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision (VMMC) was embarked on in Zimbabwe as a public health intervention measure after it was realised that it significantly reduces the rate of Human  Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) transmission from an infected female to an uninfected male during heterosexual intercourse.Objectives: The main aim of the study was to determine the complication rate and type of complications occurring during and after Male Circumcision (MC) at Spilhaus Clinic, Harare.Design: Retrospective cross sectional study.Setting: Spilhaus Family Planning Clinic, Harare Central Hospital, Zimbabwe.Results: Five hundred and eight records of VMMC were retrieved and analysed. The median age of the MC clients was 28 years (Q1 = 24 years, Q3 = 33 years). The complication rate of male circumcision during  surgery and up to 48 hours post- surgery was 1.8%. After one month post surgery the complication rate was 1.4%. Nearly 90% of patients had VMMC for the purposes of HIV prevention. About 66% of the patients had been referred to the VMMC centre from Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) centres. Ninety percent of clients seeking male circumcision were sexually active. Close to 11% of VMMC clients had had a Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) in the three months preceding VMMC. Almost 70% of the VMMC clients had not used a condom during their last sexual encounter. Slightly above 1% of the patients were HIV positive. The median operating time for each circumcision was 23 minutes (Q1 = 18 minutes, Q3 = 29 minutes).  Excessive bleeding was the most common intra- operative complication (1.2%). Wound infection was the most frequent cause of morbidity (12.6%) from 48 hours post MC to one month post- op. An ASA score of 2 (p< 0.01) was associated with a greater number of complications.Conclusion: The complication rate of MC in the peri- operative period was relatively high. Wound (12.6%) infection was the most common cause of morbidity. This rate could be significantly reduced by improving the aseptic technique and possibly training of doctors. However, on final review the complication rate was only 1.4%. Effort needs to be concentrated on circumcising populations which have a high incidence of HIV infection. Most clients were circumcised in a bid to prevent HIV infection. The HIV contracting risk profile of VMMC- seeking clients is relatively low

Anal human papillomavirus infection in HIV-positive men and women at two opportunistic infections clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe.

BackgroundHIV-infected individuals are at increased risk of anal cancer; in the majority of cases this is linked to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Anal cancer screening is not routinely offered in Zimbabwe.MethodsA cross-sectional study was performed on 152 patients (88 females; 64 males) attending Opportunistic Infection Clinics at 2 tertiary hospitals between November 2014 and June 2015. Demographic data, immunological parameters and behavioural characteristics were collected. An anal swab was collected from each patient for HPV genotype testing. HPV testing was performed using MY09/MY11 PCR, followed by typing using the dot blot method.ResultsThe mean age was 39.6 years (range, 18-69 years). Median CD4 count was 375 cells/μL. 96% were on antiretroviral therapy. Only one patient identified as a man who has sex with men. Of 122 samples tested for HPV, 54 were positive (44%). HPV was three times more common in females (60%) than males (20%). Being HPV-positive was associated with history of perianal warts, history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and having more than ten lifetime sexual partners. The most commonly detected high-risk HPV genotypes were HPV-58 (13%), HPV-31 (11%) and HPV-16 (9%). Nine patients harboured multiple high-risk HPV types. The two most commonly detected low-risk genotypes were HPV-11 (17%) and HPV-53 (11%).ConclusionOverall anal HPV prevalence was 44% in this mostly heterosexual HIV-positive population. Oncogenic HPV types accounted for almost half of infections, supporting the need for surveillance of anal cancer in this population

Anal human papillomavirus infection in HIV-positive men and women at two opportunistic infections clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe

Abstract Background HIV-infected individuals are at increased risk of anal cancer; in the majority of cases this is linked to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Anal cancer screening is not routinely offered in Zimbabwe. Methods A cross-sectional study was performed on 152 patients (88 females; 64 males) attending Opportunistic Infection Clinics at 2 tertiary hospitals between November 2014 and June 2015. Demographic data, immunological parameters and behavioural characteristics were collected. An anal swab was collected from each patient for HPV genotype testing. HPV testing was performed using MY09/MY11 PCR, followed by typing using the dot blot method. Results The mean age was 39.6 years (range, 18–69 years). Median CD4 count was 375 cells/μL. 96% were on antiretroviral therapy. Only one patient identified as a man who has sex with men. Of 122 samples tested for HPV, 54 were positive (44%). HPV was three times more common in females (60%) than males (20%). Being HPV-positive was associated with history of perianal warts, history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and having more than ten lifetime sexual partners. The most commonly detected high-risk HPV genotypes were HPV-58 (13%), HPV-31 (11%) and HPV-16 (9%). Nine patients harboured multiple high-risk HPV types. The two most commonly detected low-risk genotypes were HPV-11 (17%) and HPV-53 (11%). Conclusion Overall anal HPV prevalence was 44% in this mostly heterosexual HIV-positive population. Oncogenic HPV types accounted for almost half of infections, supporting the need for surveillance of anal cancer in this population

Development of a Novel Global Surgery Course for Medical Schools

Objective: We endeavored to create a comprehensive course in global surgery involving multinational exchange. Design: The course involved 2 weeks of didactics, 2 weeks of clinical rotations in a low-resource setting and 1 week for a capstone project. We evaluated our success through knowledge tests, surveys of the students, and surveys of our Zimbabwean hosts. Setting: The didactic portions were held in Sweden, and the clinical portion was primarily in Harare with hospitals affiliated with the University of Zimbabwe. Participants: Final year medical students from Lund University in Sweden, Harvard Medical School in the USA and the University of Zimbabwe all participated in didactics in Sweden. The Swedish and American students then traveled to Zimbabwe for clinical work. The Zimbabwean students remained in Sweden for a clinical experience. Results: The course has been taught for 3 consecutive years and is an established part of the curriculum at Lund University, with regular participation from Harvard Medical School and the University of Zimbabwe. Participants report significant improvements in their physical exam skills and their appreciation of the needs of underserved populations, as well as confidence with global surgical concepts. Our Zimbabwean hosts thought the visitors integrated well into the clinical teams, added value to their own students’ experience and believe that the exchange should continue despite the burden associated with hosting visiting students. Conclusions: Here we detail the development of a course in global surgery for medical students that integrates didactic as well as clinical experiences in a low-resource setting. The course includes a true multilateral exchange with students from Sweden, the United States and Zimbabwe participating regularly. We hope that this course might serve as a model for other medical schools looking to establish courses in this burgeoning field