Selection of livestock by snow leopards in the Central Himalayas.

<p>Selection of livestock by snow leopards in the Central Himalayas.</p

Average densities of wild and domestic ungulates in 26 study grid cells (5×5 km each) in the Central Himalayas.

<p>Average densities of wild and domestic ungulates in 26 study grid cells (5×5 km each) in the Central Himalayas.</p

Parameter estimates and test statistics of Generalized Linear Mixed Models of diet composition of snow leopards and wolves in the Central Himalayas.

<p>Parameter estimates and test statistics of Generalized Linear Mixed Models of diet composition of snow leopards and wolves in the Central Himalayas.</p

Generalized linear mixed models of factors influencing diet composition of snow leopards in the Central Himalayas.

<p>Generalized linear mixed models of factors influencing diet composition of snow leopards in the Central Himalayas.</p

Diets of snow leopard and wolf: proportions (%) of wild and domestic prey in scats, and estimated proportions of biomass and individuals consumed.

<p>Diets of snow leopard and wolf: proportions (%) of wild and domestic prey in scats, and estimated proportions of biomass and individuals consumed.</p

Snow Leopard and Himalayan Wolf: Food Habits and Prey Selection in the Central Himalayas, Nepal

<div><p>Top carnivores play an important role in maintaining energy flow and functioning of the ecosystem, and a clear understanding of their diets and foraging strategies is essential for developing effective conservation strategies. In this paper, we compared diets and prey selection of snow leopards and wolves based on analyses of genotyped scats (snow leopards n = 182, wolves n = 57), collected within 26 sampling grid cells (5×5 km) that were distributed across a vast landscape of ca 5000 km² in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. Within the grid cells, we sampled prey abundances using the double observer method. We found that interspecific differences in diet composition and prey selection reflected their respective habitat preferences, i.e. snow leopards significantly preferred cliff-dwelling wild ungulates (mainly bharal, 57% of identified material in scat samples), whereas wolves preferred typically plain-dwellers (Tibetan gazelle, kiang and argali, 31%). Livestock was consumed less frequently than their proportional availability by both predators (snow leopard = 27%; wolf = 24%), but significant avoidance was only detected among snow leopards. Among livestock species, snow leopards significantly preferred horses and goats, avoided yaks, and used sheep as available. We identified factors influencing diet composition using Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Wolves showed seasonal differences in the occurrence of small mammals/birds, probably due to the winter hibernation of an important prey, marmots. For snow leopard, occurrence of both wild ungulates and livestock in scats depended on sex and latitude. Wild ungulates occurrence increased while livestock decreased from south to north, probably due to a latitudinal gradient in prey availability. Livestock occurred more frequently in scats from male snow leopards (males: 47%, females: 21%), and wild ungulates more frequently in scats from females (males: 48%, females: 70%). The sexual difference agrees with previous telemetry studies on snow leopards and other large carnivores, and may reflect a high-risk high-gain strategy among males.</p></div

Study area: Location of survey grid cells in the Annapurna-Manaslu landscape.

<p>Study area: Location of survey grid cells in the Annapurna-Manaslu landscape.</p

Selection of ungulate prey among snow leopards and wolves in the Central Himalayas.

<p>Selection of ungulate prey among snow leopards and wolves in the Central Himalayas.</p

Generalized linear mixed models of factors influencing the occurrence of small mammals/birds in snow leopard scats in the Central Himalayas.

<p>Generalized linear mixed models of factors influencing the occurrence of small mammals/birds in snow leopard scats in the Central Himalayas.</p

Apparent prevalence of sarcoptic mange in red foxes in southeastern Norway during the five years of study.

<p>Red dashed lines and grey area represent the 95% credible intervals.</p