The effects of second-hand smoke on biological processes important in atherogenesis

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of death in western societies and cigarette smoke is among the factors that strongly contribute to the development of this disease. The early events in atherogenesis are stimulated on the one hand by cytokines that chemoattract leukocytes and on the other hand by decrease in circulating molecules that protect endothelial cells (ECs) from injury. Here we focus our studies on the effects of "second-hand" smoke on atherogenesis. METHODS: To perform these studies, a smoking system that closely simulates exposure of humans to second-hand smoke was developed and a mouse model system transgenic for human apoB(100 )was used. These mice have moderate lipid levels that closely mimic human conditions that lead to atherosclerotic plaque formation. RESULTS: "Second-hand" cigarette smoke decreases plasma high density lipoprotein levels in the blood and also decreases the ratios between high density lipoprotein and low density lipoprotein, high density lipoprotein and triglyceride, and high density lipoprotein and total cholesterol. This change in lipid profiles causes not only more lipid accumulation in the aorta but also lipid deposition in many of the smaller vessels of the heart and in hepatocytes. In addition, mice exposed to smoke have increased levels of Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein–1 in circulation and in the heart/aorta tissue, have increased macrophages in the arterial walls, and have decreased levels of adiponectin, an EC-protective protein. Also, cytokine arrays revealed that mice exposed to smoke do not undergo the switch from the pro-inflammatory cytokine profile (that develops when the mice are initially exposed to second-hand smoke) to the adaptive response. Furthermore, triglyceride levels increase significantly in the liver of smoke-exposed mice. CONCLUSION: Long-term exposure to "second-hand" smoke creates a state of permanent inflammation and an imbalance in the lipid profile that leads to lipid accumulation in the liver and in the blood vessels of the heart and aorta. The former potentially can lead to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and the latter to heart attacks

Thermodynamic studies of solute–solute and solute–solvent interactions in ternary aqueous systems containing {betaine + PEGDME250} and {betaine + K3PO4 or K2HPO4} at 298.15 K

Abstract In this work, to evaluate solute–solute, solute–solvent and phase separation in aqueous systems containing {betaine + poly ethylene glycol dimethyl ether with molar mass 250 g mol−1 (PEGDME250)}, {betaine + K3PO4} and {betaine + K2HPO4}, first water activity measurements were made at 298.15 K and atmospheric pressure using the isopiestic technique. The water iso-activity lines of these three systems were obtained which have positive deviations from the semi-ideal solutions. This suggests that betaine-polymer and betaine-K3PO4 or betaine-K2HPO4 interactions are unfavorable; and these mixtures may form aqueous two-phase systems (ATPSs) at certain concentrations. Indeed the formation of ATPSs was observed experimentally. Then, osmotic coefficient values were calculated using the obtained water activity data; and, using the polynomial method the solute activity coefficients were determined. Using these activity coefficients, the transfer Gibbs energy ( $$\Delta {G}_{tr}^{i}$$ Δ G tr i ) values were calculated for the transfer of betaine from aqueous binary to ternary systems consisting polymer (PEGDME250) or salts (K3PO4 and K2HPO4). The obtained positive $$\Delta {G}_{tr}^{i}$$ Δ G tr i values again indicated that there is unfavorable interaction between betaine and these solutes. Finally, the volumetric and ultrasonic studies were made on these systems to examine the evidence for the nature of interactions between betaine and the studied salts or polymer

Study of Thermodynamic Properties of L-serine and L-threonine in Aqueous Solutions of 1- (2-carboxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium chloride [HOOCEMIM][Cl]

The stability of amino acids in solutions containing electrolytes and the effect of ambient pH on their biological activity is an important research area. In this research work, the volumetric and transport properties of ionic liquid (IL) aqueous solution with special performance of 1-(2-carboxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([HOOCEMIM][Cl]) were studied. The selected IL acts as an electrolyte and allows the study of systems containing amino acids at acidic pH. In this work, the density, speed of sound and viscosity of binary and ternary solutions of IL in aqueous solution of amino acids in the structure of proteins, namely l-serine and l-threonine within IL molality range of (0.05, 0.07 and 0.09 mol·kg −1) were measured at 298.15 K. From these quantities, apparent molar volume, limiting apparent molar volume, apparent molar isentropic compression, limiting apparent molar isentropic compression, transfer standard volumes for amino acids from water to the aqueous IL solutions and viscosity B-coefficients were calculated using the equations of Redlich–Meyer and Jones–Dole. Close examination of literature indicates that there is no data for water activity for solution of l-serine + H 2O at 308.15 and 318.15 K. In this way water activity, osmotic coefficient and vapor pressure were measured and using the interaction parameters of Wilson, NRTL, NRF-NRTL and UNIQUAC models, activity coefficient values of l-serine calculated.Peer reviewe

How Different Electrolytes Can Influence the Aqueous Solution Behavior of 1-Ethyl-3-Methylimidazolium Chloride : A Volumetric, Viscometric, and Infrared Spectroscopy Approach

The density, sound velocity, and viscosity of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [C2mim]Cl in pure water and aqueous solutions of some electrolytes such as potassium chloride, potassium carbonate, and potassium phosphate (weight fraction of salt fixed at ws = 0. 11) have been measured over a wide range of temperatures from 298.15 to 318.15 K. The obtained experimental data have been used to compute various volumetric, compressibility, and viscometric parameters, e.g., apparent molar properties, limiting apparent molar and transfer properties. The co-sphere overlap model was employed to describe the dominant intermolecular interactions in the ternary solutions. Additionally, the structure making/breaking nature of the [C2mim]Cl in the ternary solutions has been discussed in terms of Hepler's constant and the temperature derivative of viscosity B-coefficient (dB/dT). The activation free energy of solvent and solute, activation enthalpy, and activation entropy have been calculated by the application of transition state theory. The calculated parameters have been interpreted in the sense of solvent-solute and solute-solute interactions. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) studies also have been done for the studied systems. Volumetric, acoustic, viscometric, and spectroscopic studies can render some evidence and help to understand the aqueous solution behavior of ionic liquids