The identification of a transposon affecting the asexual reproduction of the wheat pathogen <i>Zymoseptoria tritici</i>

Zymoseptoria tritici, the causal agent of Septoria tritici blotch, is a fungal wheat pathogen that causes significant global yield losses. Within Z. tritici populations, quantitative differences in virulence among different isolates are commonly observed; however, the genetic components that underpin these differences remain elusive. In this study, intraspecific comparative transcriptomic analysis was used to identify candidate genes that contribute to differences in virulence on the wheat cultivar WW2449. This led to the identification of a multicopy gene that was not expressed in the high-virulence isolate when compared to the medium- and low-virulence isolates. Further investigation suggested this gene resides in a 7.9-kb transposon. Subsequent long-read sequencing of the isolates used in the transcriptomic analysis confirmed that this gene did reside in an active Class II transposon, which is composed of four genes named REP9-1 to -4. Silencing and overexpression of REP9-1 in two distinct genetic backgrounds demonstrated that its expression alone reduces the number of pycnidia produced by Z. tritici during infection. The REP9-1 gene identified within a Class II transposon is the first discovery of a gene in a transposable element that influences the virulence of Z. tritici. This discovery adds further complexity to genetic loci that contribute to quantitative virulence in this important pathogen.China Scholarship Council; Grains Research and Development Corporation; Australian National Universit

Multi-stage resistance to <i>Zymoseptoria tritici</i> revealed by GWAS in an Australian bread wheat diversity panel

Septoria tritici blotch (STB) has been ranked the third most important wheat disease in the world, threatening a large area of wheat production. Although major genes play an important role in the protection against Zymoseptoria tritici infection, the lifespan of their resistance unfortunately is very short in modern wheat production systems. Combinations of quantitative resistance with minor effects, therefore, are believed to have prolonged and more durable resistance to Z. tritici. In this study, new quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified that are responsible for seedling-stage resistance and adult-plant stage resistance (APR). More importantly was the characterisation of a previously unidentified QTL that can provide resistance during different stages of plant growth or multi-stage resistance (MSR). At the seedling stage, we discovered a new isolate-specific QTL, QSt.wai.1A.1. At the adult-plant stage, the new QTL QStb.wai.6A.2 provided stable and consistent APR in multiple sites and years, while the QTL QStb.wai.7A.2 was highlighted to have MSR. The stacking of multiple favourable MSR alleles was found to improve resistance to Z. tritici by up to 40%

Sanctuary:A Starship transposon facilitating the movement of the virulence factor ToxA in fungal wheat pathogens

There is increasing evidence that mobile genetic elements can drive the emergence of pathogenic fungal species by moving virulence genes horizontally. The 14 kbp ToxhAT transposon was shown to move the necrotrophic effector, ToxA, horizontally between wheat pathogens, namely Parastagonospora nodorum, Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, and Bipolaris sorokiniana. All three species utilize the ToxA protein to infect wheat. Previous work found ToxhAT in distinct chromosomal positions in two B. sorokiniana isolates, indicating that the transposon remains active in this species. Here, we confirm the movement of ToxhAT using long-read sequencing of eight new and one previously published B. sorokiniana isolates. One event of independent transposition of ToxhAT was observed, and target site duplications of “TA” were identified, confirming that this is an active transposon in this species that likely falls into the Tc1/Mariner transposon family. We propose renaming this non-autonomous transposon to ToxTA. Whole genome analysis revealed that ToxTA is a passenger embedded in a much larger, conserved 170–196 kbp mobile genetic element. This element, termed Sanctuary, belongs to the newly described Starship transposon superfamily. This classification is based on the presence of direct repeats, empty insertion sites, a putative tyrosine recombinase gene, and other features of Starship transposons. We also show that ToxTA has been independently acquired by two different Starships, Sanctuary and Horizon, which share little to no sequence identity, outside of ToxTA. This classification makes Horizon and Sanctuary part of a growing number of Starships involved in the horizontal gene transfer of adaptive genetic material between fungal species

Schools out : Adam Smith and pre-disciplinary international political economy

In this article, I argue that invocations of Adam Smith in international political economy (IPE) often reveal the influence therein of a disciplinary ontological disaggregation of economic and non-economic rationality, which I claim is obscured by the tendency to map its complex intellectual contours in terms of competing schools. I trace the origins of the disciplinary characterisation of Smith as the founder of IPE's liberal tradition to invocations of his thought by centrally important figures in the perceived Austrian, Chicago and German historical schools of economics, and reflect upon the significance to IPE of the reiteration of this portrayal by apparent members of its so-called American and British schools. I additionally contrast these interpretations to those put forward by scholars who seek to interpret IPE and Smith's contribution to it in pre-disciplinary terms, which I claim reflects a distinct ontology to that attributed to the British school of IPE with which their work is often associated. I therefore contend that reflection upon invocations of Smith's thought in IPE problematises the longstanding tendency to map its intellectual terrain in terms of competing schools, reveals that the disciplinary ontological consensus that informs this tendency impacts upon articulations of its core concerns and suggests that a pre-disciplinary approach offers an alternative lens through which such concerns might be more effectively framed

The significance and lag-time of deep through flow: an example from a small, ephemeral catchment with contrasting soil types in the Adelaide Hills, South Australia

The importance of deep throughflow in a small (3.4 km2) ephemeral catchment in the Adelaide Hills of South Australia was investigated by detailed hydrochemical analysis of soil water and stream flow during autumn and early winter rains. In this Mediterranean climate with strong summer moisture deficits, several significant rainfalls are required to generate soil throughflow and stream flow (in ephemeral streams). During Autumn 2007, a large (127 mm) drought-breaking rain occurred in April followed by significant May rains; most of this precipitation occurred prior to the initiation of stream flow in late May. These early events, especially the 127 mm event, had low (depleted) stable water isotope values compared with both later rains and average winter precipitation. Thus, this large depleted early rain event provided an excellent natural tracer. During the June and July rainfall events, daily stream and soil water samples were collected and analysed. Results from major and trace elements, water isotopes (δ18O, δD), and dissolved organic carbon analysis clearly demonstrate that a large component of this early April and May rain was stored and later pushed out of deep soil or regolith zones. This pre-event water was identified in the stream as well as identified in deeper soil horizons due to its different isotopic signature which contrasted sharply with the June–July event water. Based on this data, the regolith and throughflow system for this catchment has been re-thought. The catchment area consists of about half sandy and half clayey soils. Regolith flow is now thought to be dominated by the sandy soil system not the clayey soil system. The clayey duplex soils had rapid response to rain events and saturation excess overland flow. The sandy soils had delayed soil throughflow and infiltration excess overland flow. A pulse of macropore throughflow was observed in the sandy soils three days after the rainfall event largely ended. The macropore water was a mixture of pre-event and event water, demonstrating the lag-time and mixing of the water masses in the sandy soil system. By contrast, the clayey soil horizons were dominated by pre-event water to a much lesser degree, demonstrating the quicker response and shallow flow through of the clayey soil system. Thus, the sandy terrain has a greater vadose zone storage and greater lag time of through-flow than the clayey terrain.E. Bestland, S. Milgate, D. Chittleborough, J. VanLeeuwen, M. Pichler and L. Solonink

Revisiting the Evolution and Function of NIP2 Paralogues in the <i>Rhynchosporium</i> Spp. Complex

The fungus Rhynchosporium commune, the causal agent of barley scald disease, contains a paralogous effector gene family called Necrosis-Inducing Protein 2 (NIP2) and NIP2-like protein (NLP). However, the function and full genomic context of these paralogues remain uncharacterised. Here we present a highly contiguous long-read assembly of a newly isolated Australian strain, R. commune WAI453, that is virulent on multiple barley cultivars. Using this assembly, we show that the duplication of the NIP2 and NLP gene families is distributed throughout the genome and pre-dates the speciation of R. commune from other species in the Rhynchosporium genus. Some NIP2 paralogues have subsequently been lost or are absent in these closely related species. The diversity of these paralogues was examined from R. commune global populations and their expression was analysed during in planta and in vitro growth to evaluate the importance of these genes during infection. The majority of NIP2 and NLP paralogues in the WAI453 genome were significantly upregulated during plant infection suggesting that the NIP2 and NLP genes harbour virulence roles. An attempt to further characterise the function of NIP2.1 by infiltrating purified protein into barley leaves did not induce necrosis, questioning its previously reported role as an inducer of host cell death. Together these results suggest that the NIP2 effector family does play a role during infection of barley; however, the exact function of NIP2, like many effectors, remains uncharacterised.</p

Fungicide resistance management in Australian grain crops

Fungicide resistance is a serious and increasing problem in cropping systems worldwide. Fungicides are an important component of integrated disease management strategies for the protection of crops from the impacts of fungal diseases. However, as their use has increased, the effectiveness of some fungicides has been reduced by the development of fungicide resistant pathogen populations. Without intervention, more fungicides are likely to become ineffective

Hospital Performance, the Local Economy, and the Local Workforce: Findings from a US National Longitudinal Study

Blustein and colleagues examine the associations between changes in hospital performance and their local economic resources. Locationally disadvantaged hospitals perform poorly on key indicators, raising concerns that pay-for-performance models may not reduce inequality

Pharmacological activity of the hydroalcoholic extract from Hovenia dulcis thunberg fruit and the flavonoid dihydromyricetin during hypercholesterolemia induced in rats

Cerebrovascular accidents and coronary artery disease are the leading causes of cardiovascular mortalities in Brazil and high levels of LDL cholesterol are one of the main risk factors. In this context, several plant extracts and natural substances have shown promise as cholesterol-lowering. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of the hydroalcoholic extract of the fruit of H. dulcisand of dihydromyricetin in cholesterol reduction in hypercholesterolemic rats. Forty-two Wistar male rats were distributed into seven groups of six animals that received diets supplemented with 1% cholesterol and 0.3% cholic acid, with the exception of the control group, which received conventional diets. Animals were treated with oral suspensions containing: atorvastatin 1.0 mg/kg; H. dulcisextract at 50.0 and 100.0 mg/kg and dihydromyricetin at 25.0 and 50.0 mg/kg vehicle (control group). The following biochemical markers were evaluated; total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, triglycerides, AST, ALT, and alkaline phosphatase. The hypercholesterolemic diet was effective in inducing hypercholesterolemia, increasing total cholesterol by 112.7% relative to the control group. The treatments with two doses of the extract proved to be promising hypocholesterolemic agents, as they were able to substantially reduce total cholesterol and LDL-C, without significantly altering triglycerides, hepatic transaminases, and alkaline phosphatase, thereby encouraging the studies with the plant H. dulcis. The groups treated with the flavonoid dihydromyricetin, although they showed a significant reduction in total cholesterol and LDL-C, and found increases in triglycerides and hepatic transaminases, which is unwanted in the context of hypercholesterolaemia

Continuation of emtricitabine/lamivudine within combination antiretroviral therapy following detection of the M184V/I HIV-1 resistance mutation

Objectives: The aim of the study was to investigate whether lamivudine (3TC) or emtricitabine (FTC) use following detection of M184V/I is associated with better virological outcomes. Methods: We identified people with viruses harbouring the M184V/I mutation in UK multicentre data sets who had treatment change/initiation within 1&nbsp;year. We analysed outcomes of viral suppression (&lt;&nbsp;200&nbsp;HIV-1 RNA copies/mL) and appearance of new major drug resistance mutations (DRMs) using Cox and Poisson models, with stratification by new drug regimen (excluding 3TC/FTC) and Bayesian implementation, and estimated the effect of 3TC/FTC adjusted for individual and viral characteristics. Results: We included 2597 people with the M184V/I resistance mutation, of whom 665 (25.6%) were on 3TC and 458 (17.6%) on FTC. We found a negative adjusted association between 3TC/FTC use and viral suppression [hazard ratio (HR)&nbsp;0.84; 95% credibility interval (CrI) 0.71–0.98]. On subgroup analysis of individual drugs, there was no evidence of an association with viral suppression for 3TC (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;184; HR&nbsp;0.94; 95% CrI 0.73–1.15) or FTC (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;454; HR&nbsp;0.99; 95% CrI 0.80–1.19) amongst those on tenofovir-containing regimens, but we estimated a reduced rate of viral suppression for people on 3TC amongst those without tenofovir use (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;481; HR 0.71; 95% CrI 0.54–0.90). We found no association between 3TC/FTC and detection of any new DRM (overall HR&nbsp;0.92; 95% CrI 0.64–1.18), but found inconclusive evidence of a lower incidence rate of new DRMs (overall incidence rate ratio 0.69; 95% CrI 0.34–1.11). Conclusions: We did not find evidence that 3TC or FTC use is associated with an increase in viral suppression, but it may reduce the appearance of additional DRMs in people with M184V/I. 3TC was associated with reduced viral suppression amongst people on regimens without tenofovir