La lecture dans le Nouveau Roman : L’ACACIA de Claude Simon. Etude sémiotique.

This article aims at a semiotic study of reading through the analysis of the texts of M. Proust and C.Simon Reading is above all a communication that acts on the reader. This is why we endeavor to identify the reader's presence in these texts. The latter is invited from within (text) to interpret and construct the meaning of what he reads. He leaves the domain of passivity to join that of activity and creation

L’espace urbain et le sens dans L’Emploi du temps de Michel Butor.

Le présent article s’intéresse à la ville et à son ancrage dans la littérature.En effet, La ville correspond à milieu, c'est-à-dire à une étendue spatiale délimitée qui contient des caractéristiques propres

De l’amour dans La Modification de Michel Butor Analyse sémiotique.

Dans La Modification de Michel Butor, les passions du sujet Léon subissent une transformation tout au de son voyage Paris-Rome. Le présent article s’intéresse à la passion         amoureuse, ainsi que son évolution telle qu’elle est manifestée dans le discours de Butor. S’appuyant sur les outils théoriques de la sémiotique des passions, nous dégageons la représentation textuelle de cette passion, ainsi que ses configurations passionnelles

Characterization of the FAD2 Gene Family in Soybean Reveals the Limitations of Gel-Based TILLING in Genes with High Copy Number

Soybean seed oil typically contains 18–20% oleic acid. Increasing the content of oleic acid is beneficial for health and biodiesel production. Mutations in FAD2-1 genes have been reported to increase seed oleic acid content. A subset of 1,037 mutant families from a mutagenized soybean cultivar (cv.) Forrest population was screened using reverse genetics (TILLING) to identify mutations within FAD2 genes. Although no fad2 mutants were identified using gel-based TILLING, four fad2-1A and one fad2-1B mutants were identified to have high seed oleic acid content using forward genetic screening and subsequent target sequencing. TILLING has been successfully used as a non-transgenic reverse genetic approach to identify mutations in genes controlling important agronomic traits. However, this technique presents limitations in traits such as oil composition due to gene copy number and similarities within the soybean genome. In soybean, FAD2 are present as two copies, FAD2-1 and FAD2-2. Two FAD2-1 members: FAD2-1A and FAD2-1B; and three FAD2-2 members: FAD2-2A, FAD2-2B, and FAD2-2C have been reported. Syntenic, phylogenetic, and in silico analysis revealed two additional members constituting the FAD2 gene family: GmFAD2-2D and GmFAD2-2E, located on chromosomes 09 and 15, respectively. They are presumed to have diverged from other FAD2-2 members localized on chromosomes 19 (GmFAD2-2A and GmFAD2-2B) and 03 (GmFAD2-2C). This work discusses alternative solutions to the limitations of gel-based TILLING in functional genomics due to high copy number and multiple paralogs of the FAD2 gene family in soybean

Annotation of Cultivar Variations at the Multigeneic Rhg1/Rfs2 Locus: Polymorphisms Underling AlteraAnnotation of Cultivar Variations at the Multigeneic Rhg1/Rfs2 Locus: Polymorphisms Underling Alterations of Root Development and Pest Resistancetions of Root Development and Pest Resistance

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) suffers yield loss due to root infection from soil infestation by Heterodera glycine I. (soybean cyst nematode SCN) and Fusarium virguliforme (Aoki; sudden death syndrome (SDS)). The major locus for SCN and SDS resistance has previously been identified as Rhg1/Rfs2 (chr18; LG G) (site reference). The objective of this experiment was to compare the Sanger DNA sequence of a resistant cultivar (‘Forrest’) and two susceptible cultivars (‘Williams 82’ and ‘Asgrow A3244’). Sequences were downloaded from GenBank for Williams 82, Phytzome for A3244 and a newly sequenced BAC-B73P06 (82,157 bp) encompassing the Rfs2/Rhg1 locus. Using the resistant cultivars, 800 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 57 indels were identified. In contrast, the susceptible cultivars had just 12 SNPs and no indels between them. Polymorphisms were clustered within 59 kbp, divided into three sections. There were 5 predicted recombination breakpoints. The third and fourth breakpoints were located before gene 3 and after gene 5 (Glyma18g02680; the RLK at Rhg1/Rfs2) which were therefore inferred to be derived from Peking, within the Rhg1/Rfs2 region. Comparisons of SNPs identified in Illumina sequences from 31 semi-domesticated genomes showed 80% of the total SNPs in Forrest were found among the genomes. Annotation and gene prediction showed the BAC gene prediction encoded 9-10 genes. There were 31 SNPs within exons and 137 among introns. Just 11 SNPs caused amino acid changes. There were 5 SNPs in cis regulatory elements (CREs) and 14 in promoters. Polymorphisms indicated the regions that were introgressed from Peking had defined limits. Proteins across the region were highly conserved compared to non-coding regions, suggesting purifying selection occurred

L’enseignement de l’amazighe en contextes marocain et algérien : état des lieux

Dans cet article, nous exposerons quelques points qui pourront éclairer la situation de l’enseignement de l’amazighe au Maroc et en Algérie. Dans ces deux pays, la langue amazighe est récemment introduite à l’école, cette situation se voit comme singulière car elle se révèle être un cas didactique inédit.  En effet, sur le plan sociolinguistique, elle passe d’une langue orale, minorée, sans tradition littéracique à une langue dont le statut et le corpus ont beaucoup évolué. A l’école principalement, des questions se posent sur son enseignement, ses finalités, son évolution et ses méthodes. Cet article se veut un éclairage de la situation de l’enseignement de l’amazighe en contextes marocain et algérien. L’objectif est d’essayer d’expliquer la situation de l’enseignement de l’amazighe au Maroc et en Algérie en nous concentrant sur 3 points : le cadre référentiel de cet enseignement ; sa généralisation ; et la question de la variation linguistique.

In silico comparison of transcript abundances during Arabidopsis thaliana and Glycine max resistance to Fusarium virguliforme

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean (<it>Glycine max </it>L. Merr.) is an economically important disease, caused by the semi-biotrophic fungus <it>Fusarium solani </it>f. sp. <it>glycines</it>, recently renamed <it>Fusarium virguliforme </it>(Fv). Due to the complexity and length of the soybean-Fusarium interaction, the molecular mechanisms underlying plant resistance and susceptibility to the pathogen are not fully understood. <it>F. virguliforme </it>has a very wide host range for the ability to cause root rot and a very narrow host range for the ability to cause a leaf scorch. <it>Arabidopsis thaliana </it>is a host for many types of phytopathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and nematodes. Deciphering the variations among transcript abundances (TAs) of functional orthologous genes of soybean and <it>A. thaliana </it>involved in the interaction will provide insights into plant resistance to <it>F. viguliforme</it>.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>In this study, we reported the analyses of microarrays measuring TA in whole plants after <it>A. thaliana </it>cv 'Columbia' was challenged with fungal pathogen <it>F. virguliforme</it>. Infection caused significant variations in TAs. The total number of increased transcripts was nearly four times more than that of decreased transcripts in abundance. A putative resistance pathway involved in responding to the pathogen infection in <it>A. thaliana </it>was identified and compared to that reported in soybean.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Microarray experiments allow the interrogation of tens of thousands of transcripts simultaneously and thus, the identification of plant pathways is likely to be involved in plant resistance to Fusarial pathogens. Dissection of the set functional orthologous genes between soybean and <it>A. thaliana </it>enabled a broad view of the functional relationships and molecular interactions among plant genes involved in <it>F. virguliforme </it>resistance.</p

Genome reorganization of the GmSHMT gene family in soybean showed a lack of functional redundancy in resistance to soybean cyst nematode

In soybeans, eighteen members constitute the serine hydroxymethyltransferase (GmSHMT) gene family, of which the cytosolic-targeted GmSHMT08c member has been reported to mediate resistance to soybean cyst nematode (SCN). This work presents a comprehensive study of the SHMT gene family members, including synteny, phylogeny, subcellular localizations, haplotypes, protein homology modeling, mutational, and expression analyses. Phylogenetic analysis showed that SHMT genes are divided into four classes refecting their subcellular distribution (cytosol, nucleus, mitochondrion, and chloroplast). Subcellular localization of selected GmSHMT members supports their in-silico predictions and phylogenetic distribution. Expression and functional analyses showed that GmSHMT genes display many overlapping, but some divergent responses during SCN infection. Furthermore, mutational analysis reveals that all isolated EMS mutants that lose their resistance to SCN carry missense and nonsense mutations at the GmSHMT08c, but none of the Gmshmt08c mutants carried mutations in the other GmSHMT genes. Haplotype clustering analysis using the whole genome resequencing data from a collection of 106 diverse soybean germplams (15X) was performed to identify allelic variants and haplotypes within the GmSHMT gene family. Interestingly, only the cytosolic-localized GmSHMT08c presented SNP clusters that were associated with SCN resistance, supporting our mutational analysis. Although eight GmSHMT members respond to the nematode infestation, functional and mutational analysis has shown the absence of functional redundancy in resistance to SCN. Structural analysis and protein homology modeling showed the presence of spontaneous mutations at important residues within the GmSHMT proteins, suggesting the presence of altered enzyme activities based on substrate afnities. Due to the accumulation of mutations during the evolution of the soybean genome, the other GmSHMT members have undergone neofunctionalization and subfunctionalization events

Characterization of the Soluble NSF Attachment Protein gene family identifies two members involved in additive resistance to a plant pathogen

Proteins with Tetratricopeptide-repeat (TPR) domains are encoded by large gene families and distributed in all plant lineages. This study aims to characterize a subfamily of TPR containing proteins named Soluble NSF-Attachment Protein (GmSNAP), of which GmSNAP18 has been reported to mediate resistance to soybean cyst nematode (SCN). This study uses a population of recombinant inbred lines from resistant and susceptible parents to analyse SNAP gene family divergence over time. Five members constitute the soybean SNAP gene family: GmSNAP18, GmSNAP11, GmSNAP14, GmSNAP02, and GmSNAP09. Phylogenetic analysis of genes from 22 diverse plant species showed that SNAP genes were distributed in six monophyletic clades corresponding to the different plant lineages. SNAP genes were duplicated and derived from a common ancestor and unique gene still present in chlorophytic algae. This hypothesis is supported by the conservation of the four TPR motifs in all species, including ancestral lineages. Syntenic analysis of regions harbouring GmSNAP genes reveals that this family arose from segmental and tandem duplications following a tetraploidization event. qRT-PCR analysis of GmSNAP genes indicates a co-regulation following SCN infection. Genetic analysis demonstrates that GmSNAP11 contributes to an additive resistance to SCN. Thus, GmSNAP11 was identified as a novel minor gene conferring resistance to SCN

Multigeneic QTL: The Laccase Encoded within the Soybean Rfs2/rhg1 Locus Inferred to Underlie Part of the Dual Resistance to Cyst Nematode and Sudden Death Syndrome

Multigeneic QTL present significant problems to analysis. Resistance to soybean (Glycine max (L) Merr.) sudden death syndrome (SDS) caused by Fusarium virguliforme was partly underlain by QRfs2 that was clustered with, or pleiotropic to, the multigeneic rhg1 locus providing resistance to soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines ). A group of five genes were found between the two markers that delimited the Rfs2/rhg1 locus. One of the five genes was predicted to encode an unusual diphenol oxidase (laccase; EC 1.10.3.2). The aim of this study was to characterize this member of the soybean laccase gene-family and explore its involvement in SDS resistance. A genomic clone and a full length cDNA was isolated from resistant cultivar \u27Forrest\u27 that were different among susceptible cultivars \u27Asgrow 3244\u27 and \u27Williams 82\u27 at four residues R/H168, I/M271, R/H330, E/K470. Additional differences were found in six of the seven introns and the promoter region. Transcript abundance (TA) among genotypes that varied for resistance to SDS or SCN did not differ significantly. Therefore the protein activity was inferred to underlie resistance. Protein expressed in yeast pYES2/NTB had weak enzyme activity with common substrates but good activity with root phenolics. The Forrest isoform may underlie both QRfs 2 and rhg