Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Isolates Obtained from Food Animals in Selected Sites in Kenya

The organisms Salmonella are known to be facultative intracellular pathogens that can survive in the host macrophages. The Strains of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) are a major cause of serious bloodstream infections with a case fatality of 20-25%. In most cases, the clinical presentations include: gastroenteritis, bacteremia, focal infection and enteric fever. In other continents of the world, NTS are associated with other clinical presentations but not majorly diarrhea. This study aims to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles and resistance genes transferability of Non Typhoidal Salmonella isolates obtained from food animals (Cattle, Chicken and Pigs) and the environment in selected sites in Kenya at the Center for Microbiology Research (CMR) Institute. During this study, some of the laboratory methods that were carried out included antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the disk diffusion technique for all commonly used antimicrobials and Conjugation Assay to determine Transferable Resistance determinants. This study yielded relevant findings concerning the increasing rate of Salmonellosis in this country. The study first of all agrees with other studies that there is a high rate of NTS in food animals and this has a great connection with the increased population of these organisms in the environment. The high rate in continuous usage of antibiotics for treatment of infections in food animals and also to increase products production especially in chicken has led to the rise of resistance cases to commonly used antibiotics. Conjugation studies carried out revealed that resistant genes transferability from one bacterial species to the other is common.  A total of 289 isolates used in this study, A total of 289 NTS samples were analyzed. Among the 289 samples, 134 (46%; 95% C.I: 40.3%-51.8%) were chicken isolates, 45 (16%; 95% C.I: 11.2%-20.3%) were cow isolates, 27 (9%; 95% C.I: 5.7%-12.3%) were pig isolates, 3 (1%; 95% C.I: -0.15%-2.15%) were isolates from goats and environmental isolates were 80 (28%; 95% C.I: 22.8%-33.2. The highest levels of resistance were against Ampicillin 42.7% had the highest resistance level followed by Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim 38.2% and then Chloramphenicol 22.2%. The proportion of isolates resistant against Gentamicin was 9.4%. Environmental isolates showed a higher resistance profile against Ceftazidime 2.4%, Ceftriaxone 2.4%, Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim 40.2% and Chloramphenicol 25.6% compared to food animal isolates. %). It is of importance that there be strict control on the use of antibiotics in animal production to prevent the emergence of antibiotic resistance in Non-Typhoidal Salmonella. Keywords: Invasive Non-Typhoidal Salmonella, antimicrobial resistance, conjugation, resistance genes transferability, MDRs DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/9-2-0

Morphodynamics of the Manyema tidal delta at Kunduchi, Tanzania

The prevailing northward longshore drift of beach sand on the northern part of Msasani Bay, north of Dar es Salaam, is interrupted at Kunduchi by the tidal flushing of Manyema Creek, a mangrove ecosystem partially developed for salt production. Shoreline changes around the creek mouth in recent decades have eroded coastal land and destroyed buildings, prompting stakeholders to construct protective groynes and revetments. Sand is transported across the delta by the interaction of two forcing processes – currents of water flushing the creek in response to tidal variation; and (generally) currents generated by wind-driven waves according to the monsoon season. Study of the sand morphology of the creek and delta platform together with time-series satellite imagery has permitted demarcation of the respective sand transport pathways and of morphodynamic changes on the delta over the last decade. The sand transport regime has promoted erosion of the shore to the south of the creek mouth and has led to a spasmodic delivery of sand to beaches north of the channel. Attempts to stabilise the shore around the creek mouth are described and their effectiveness evalutated

Anti-inflammatory activities of dichloromethane-methanolic leaf and stem bark extracts of Ximenia americana in mice models

Introduction: Ximenia americana is a highly branched shrub mainly found in tropics of Asia, Africa, New Zealand, Central and South America among others. In most parts of Africa, X. americana is used in folklore to treat various disorders such as oedema, pain, fever, helminthiasis, diarrhea and burns among others. There is no published data on anti-inflammatory activities of organic extracts of X. americana. It is against this background that this research was carried out. The study tested for the anti-inflammatory activities of dichloromethane-methanolic (DCM-MeOH) leaf and stem bark extracts of X. americana in rats.Methods: The plant materials were collected from Mbeere North sub-county, Embu county, Kenya. Methanol and dichloromethane in the ratio of 1:1 was used to extract the active compounds. Five to 6 weeks old Swiss Albino mice were employed for the anti-inflammatory studies. Animals were divided into 6 groups of 5 rats each: normal, negative, reference and three experimental groups (50, 100 and 150 mg/kg body weight). Inflammation was induced experimentally using carrageenan. The experimental groups were treated with predetermined dose quantities of prepared extracts. Diclofenac was used as the reference drug. Data was analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).Results: The extracts from the leaves reduced hind paw circumference by between 0.91 and 16.90 while the stem bark extracts reduced hind paw circumference by between 5.84 and 29.00. Diclofenac reduced right hind paw circumference by 1.32-29.60. Qualitative phytochemical screening showed presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and terpenoids in the extract.Conclusion: The study established that the DCM-MeOH leaf and stem bark extracts of X. americana is effective in management of inflammation and therefore it can be explored as a possible bio-resource in the development of herbal medicines

Phytochemical screening and antipyretic activities of dichloromethane-methanolic leaf and stem bark extracts of Ximenia americana in rat models

Introduction: In most parts of Africa, Ximenia americana is used in folklore to treat various disorders such as oedema, pain, fever, helminthiasis, diarrhoea, burns among other diseases. This study tested the antipyretic activities of dichloromethane-methanolic (DCM-MeOH) stem bark and leaf extracts of X. americana in rats. Qualitative phytochemical screening was also done to evaluate the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and terpenoids in the extract.Methods: The plant materials were collected from Mbeere North sub-county, Embu county, Kenya. Methanol and dichloromethane in the ratio of 1:1 was used to extract the active compounds. Two to three months old male Wister rats were employed for the antipyretic studies. Animals were divided into six groups of five rats each: normal, negative, reference and three experimental groups (50, 100 and 150 mg/kg body weight). Pyrexia was induced experimentally using turpentine. The experimental groups were treated with predetermined dose quantities of prepared extracts. Aspirin was used as the reference drug. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).Results: The extracts from the leaves lowered rectal temperature by 0.45 to 2.11 while the stem bark extracts lowered rectal temperature in the range of 0.71 to 2.13. Aspirin lowered the rectal temperature in the range of 0.74 and 1.67. Qualitative phytochemical screening showed presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and terpenoids in the extract.Conclusion: DCM-MeOH leaf and stem bark extracts of X. americana is effective in management of fever and therefore it can be explored as a possible bio-resource in the development of herbal antipyretic medicines

Gender, livestock and livelihood indicators

This guide is a reference point for some of the important indicators that ILRI can use to monitor the changing role of livestock in livelihoods in different production systems and the impact of livestock-related interventions. While this list of indicators is not comprehensive in covering all the areas in which ILRI works, it provides a starting point for the common objectives which most of our projects, be they in markets, biotechnology or the environment, hope to achieve. Some of these indicators are already commonly used in different surveys but their application has not always been consistent or comparable. With time, we expect to develop further common indicators around other areas of research in ILRI. This document should therefore be considered as a living document to which we will add core indicators around the thematic areas covered by ILRI’s research including such areas as partnerships, capacity building and the key thematic areas of markets, biotechnology and environment. This document should be used to guide your data collection within projects. These may include baseline data, evaluation (both internal and external), impact assessments, project appraisals and any other data collection within the projects and programmes across the institute, including surveys conducted by students where possible. Currently, the indicators are designed for data collection at household level and for integration into household surveys. Project teams should ask for assistance in adapting these indicators for use in other types of surveys such as community surveys, focus group discussions, market agent surveys and key informant interviews. Livestock play multiple roles in livelihoods. In deriving these indicators, we have used both the sustainable livelihoods framework, placing livestock within an assets and capital framework, and as a pathway out of poverty. The latter recognizes that for livestock to translate into poverty reduction the necessary conditions i.e. technologies and services to generate productive, sustainable and profitable markets are a pre-requisite. Section 2 of this document identifies 6 categories of indicators and gives a rationale for each of the indicators and how to measure them covering both the tools for data collection on the indicator and its calculation. Section 3 provides the initial basic survey data to capture in ILRI surveys, Section 4 focuses on study meta-data to document and Section 5 on household sampling