The Return of the Proplyds - Understanding the Dynamics of Ionization Triggered Stars

Proplyds and stars inside HII-regions are a well studied phenomenon. It is possible that they were triggered by the expansion of the HII-region itself. Here, we present calculations on the dynamics of HII-regions. We show that the triggered stars that form in the expanding shell of swept up material around the HII region rarely return into the HII regions on timescales that are inferred for the proplyds and observed young stars. However, in very dense environments like Orion, the triggered stars return in time. Thus, our model can explain why proplyds are barely observed in other HII regions. We propose that the properties of young stellar objects in HII regions in general depend critically on the distance from the massive, ionizing central star cluster. Closest in, there are proplyds, where the disk of a young star interacts directly with the feedback of the massive star. Further out are Class II protostars, where the ionization already removed the envelope. Even further away, one should find Class I stars, which either have been triggered by the ionizing radiation or pre-existed and have not lost their envelope yet. This radial sequence is not necessarily an age sequence but rather a result of the dwindling importance of stellar winds and ionizing radiation with distance. We investigate the observational signature of triggered star formation and find that the stellar distribution for ionization triggered star formation shows a distinct feature, a peak at the current position of the ionization front. Therefore, it is generally possible to tell triggered and in situ distributions of stars apart.Comment: 6 pages, 5 figures, submitted to MNRA

Accretion driven turbulence in filaments I: Non-gravitational accretion

We study accretion driven turbulence for different inflow velocities in star forming filaments using the code ramses. Filaments are rarely isolated objects and their gravitational potential will lead to radially dominated accretion. In the non-gravitational case, accretion by itself can already provoke non-isotropic, radially dominated turbulent motions responsible for the complex structure and non-thermal line widths observed in filaments. We find that there is a direct linear relation between the absolute value of the total density weighted velocity dispersion and the infall velocity. The turbulent velocity dispersion in the filaments is independent of sound speed or any net flow along the filament. We show that the density weighted velocity dispersion acts as an additional pressure term supporting the filament in hydrostatic equilibrium. Comparing to observations, we find that the projected non-thermal line width variation is generally subsonic independent of inflow velocity

Accretion driven turbulence in filaments II: Effects of self-gravity

We extend our previous work on simulations with the code RAMSES on accretion driven turbulence by including self-gravity and study the effects of core formation and collapse. We show that radial accretion onto filaments drives turbulent motions which are not isotropic but radially dominated. In contrast to filaments without gravity, the velocity dispersion of self-gravitating filaments does not settle in an equilibrium. Despite showing similar amounts of driven turbulence, they continually dissipate their velocity dispersion until the onset of core formation. This difference is connected to the evolution of the radius as it determines the dissipation rate. In the non-gravitational case filament growth is not limited and its radius grows linearly with time. In contrast, there is a maximum extent in the self-gravitational case resulting in an increased dissipation rate. Furthermore, accretion driven turbulence shows a radial profile which is anti-correlated with density. This leads to a constant turbulent pressure throughout the filament. As the additional turbulent pressure does not have a radial gradient it does not contribute to the stability of filaments and does not increase the critical line-mass. However, this radial turbulence does affect the radius of a filament, adding to the extent and setting its maximum value. Moreover, the radius evolution also affects the growth timescale of cores which compared to the timescale of collapse of an accreting filament limits core formation to high line-masses

Explaining the observed velocity dispersion of dwarf galaxies by baryonic mass loss during the first collapse

In the widely adopted LambdaCDM scenario for galaxy formation, dwarf galaxies are the building blocks of larger galaxies. Since they formed at relatively early epochs when the background density was relatively high, they are expected to retain their integrity as satellite galaxies when they merge to form larger entities. Although many dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSphs) are found in the galactic halo around the Milky Way, their phase space density (or velocity dispersion) appears to be significantly smaller than that expected for satellite dwarf galaxies in the LambdaCDM scenario. In order to account for this discrepancy, we consider the possibility that they may have lost a significant fraction of their baryonic matter content during the first infall at the Hubble expansion turnaround. Such mass loss arises naturally due to the feedback by relatively massive stars which formed in their centers briefly before the maximum contraction. Through a series of N-body simulations, we show that the timely loss of a significant fraction of the dSphs initial baryonic matter content can have profound effects on their asymptotic half-mass radius, velocity dispersion, phase-space density, and the mass fraction between residual baryonic and dark matter.Comment: 6 pages, 6 figures, accepted for publication in the Ap

Ionisation Feedback in Star and Cluster Formation Simulations

Feedback from photoionisation may dominate on parsec scales in massive star-forming regions. Such feedback may inhibit or enhance the star formation efficiency and sustain or even drive turbulence in the parent molecular cloud. Photoionisation feedback may also provide a mechanism for the rapid expulsion of gas from young clusters' potentials, often invoked as the main cause of 'infant mortality'. There is currently no agreement, however, with regards to the efficiency of this process and how environment may affect the direction (positive or negative) in which it proceeds. The study of the photoionisation process as part of hydrodynamical simulations is key to understanding these issues, however, due to the computational demand of the problem, crude approximations for the radiation transfer are often employed. We will briefly review some of the most commonly used approximations and discuss their major drawbacks. We will then present the results of detailed tests carried out using the detailed photoionisation code MOCASSIN and the SPH+ionisation code iVINE code, aimed at understanding the error introduced by the simplified photoionisation algorithms. This is particularly relevant as a number of new codes have recently been developed along those lines. We will finally propose a new approach that should allow to efficiently and self-consistently treat the photoionisation problem for complex radiation and density fields.Comment: Invited review presented at the IAU Symposium 270: Computational Star Formation held in Barcelona (May 31st- June 4th 2010) - Refereed paper version; 8 Pages, 4 Figure

Ionization and Triggered Star Formation in Turbulent Molecular Clouds

Einige der spektakulärsten Beobachtungen unserer Milchstrasse zeigen die filamentären Strukturen in der Umgebung von heissen massereichen O-Sternen. Sobald diese Sterne beginnen zu leuchten, ionisiert ihre ultraviolette Strahlung das umgebende Gas und erzeugt eine heisse HII-Region. Das erhitzte Gas expandiert in die umgebende kalte Molekülwolke. Die dabei entstehende Schockwelle komprimiert das kalte Gas in die auffälligen Strukturen. An den Spitzen dieser Strukturen entstehen neue, masseärmere Sterne. Bis heute ist die präzise Entstehung dieser Regionen nicht vollständig verstanden. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Simulation dieser Entwicklung anhand hydrodynamischer Methoden. Dazu wird ionisierende Strahlung in einen Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) Code namens VINE, der vollständig OpenMP-parallelisiert ist, implementiert. Für die Berechnung der Ionisation wird angenommen, dass die betrachtete Region so weit von dem Stern entfernt ist, dass die Strahlung näherungsweise plan-parallel eintrifft. Zunächst wird die Eintrittsfläche in gleich grosse Strahlen unterteilt. Dann wird die Ionisation entlang dieser Strahlen propagiert. Die neue Implementation ist vollständig parallelisiert und trägt den Namen iVINE. Zuerst wird anhand mehrerer Tests die Übereinstimmung von iVINE mit bekannten analytischen Lösungen gezeigt. Danach wird der durch Ionisation induzierte gravitative Kollaps einer marginal stabilen Sphäre untersucht. In allen drei simulierten Fällen mit unterschiedlichem einfallenden ionisierenden Fluss kollabiert die Sphäre. Zusätzlich kann die beobachtete Tendenz, dass jüngere Sterne weiter entfernt von der Quelle der Ionisation entstehen, bestätigt werden. Desweiteren werden Simulationen über den Einfluss ionisierender Strahlung auf turbulente Molekülwolken durchgeführt. Hier zeigt sich, dass die beobachteten, komplexen Strukturen durch die Kombination von Ionisation, Hydrodynamik und Gravitation reproduziert werden können. An den Spitzen der Strukturen wird das Gas stark komprimiert und kollabiert unter dem Einfluss seiner Eigengravitation, genau wie beobachtet. Gleichzeitig treibt die ionisierende Strahlung die Turbulenz im kalten Gas weit stärker als bisher angenommen. Anhand von einer Parameterstudie folgt, dass die entstehenden Strukturen kritisch von dem jeweiligen Anfangsstadium der Wolke zur Zeit der Zündung des O-Sterns abhängen. Dies ergibt die einmalige Gelegenheit, zusätzliche Informationen über Molekülwolken, die ansonsten schwierig zu beobachten sind, in den von O-Sternen stark illuminierten Regionen zu erhalten. Die Implementation ionisierender Strahlung im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit ermöglicht die Untersuchung der Einwirkung massereicher Sterne auf ihre Umgebung in bislang Unerreichter Genauigkeit. Die durchgeführten Simulationen vertiefen unser Verständnis der Wechselwirkung von Turbulenz und Gravitation im Rahmen der Sternentstehung. Weitere erstrebenswerte Schritte wären die genauere Berücksichtigung der Kühlprozesse innerhalb der Molekülwolke und die Implementation der Winde massereicher O-Sterne

Triggered Star Formation in the Environment of Young Massive Stars

Recent observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope show clear evidence that star formation takes place in the surrounding of young massive O-type stars, which are shaping their environment due to their powerful radiation and stellar winds. In this work we investigate the effect of ionising radiation of massive stars on the ambient interstellar medium (ISM): In particular we want to examine whether the UV-radiation of O-type stars can lead to the observed pillar-like structures and can trigger star formation. We developed a new implementation, based on a parallel Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics code (called IVINE), that allows an efficient treatment of the effect of ionising radiation from massive stars on their turbulent gaseous environment. Here we present first results at very high resolution. We show that ionising radiation can trigger the collapse of an otherwise stable molecular cloud. The arising structures resemble observed structures (e.g. the pillars of creation in the Eagle Nebula (M16) or the Horsehead Nebula B33). Including the effect of gravitation we find small regions that can be identified as formation places of individual stars. We conclude that ionising radiation from massive stars alone can trigger substantial star formation in molecular clouds.Comment: 4 pages, 2 figures. To appear in: "Triggered Star Formation in a Turbulent ISM", IAU Symposium 237, Prague, Czech Republic, August 2006; eds. B.G.Elmegreen & J. Palou

On the IMF in a Triggered Star Formation Context

The origin of the stellar initial mass function (IMF) is a fundamental issue in the theory of star formation. It is generally fit with a composite power law. Some clues on the progenitors can be found in dense starless cores that have a core mass function (CMF) with a similar shape. In the low-mass end, these mass functions increase with mass, albeit the sample may be somewhat incomplete; in the high-mass end, the mass functions decrease with mass. There is an offset in the turn-over mass between the two mass distributions. The stellar mass for the IMF peak is lower than the corresponding core mass for the CMF peak in the Pipe Nebula by about a factor of three. Smaller offsets are found between the IMF and the CMFs in other nebulae. We suggest that the offset is likely induced during a starburst episode of global star formation which is triggered by the formation of a few O/B stars in the multi-phase media, which naturally emerged through the onset of thermal instability in the cloud-core formation process. We consider the scenario that the ignition of a few massive stars photoionizes the warm medium between the cores, increases the external pressure, reduces their Bonnor?Ebert mass, and triggers the collapse of some previously stable cores. We quantitatively reproduce the IMF in the low-mass end with the assumption of additional rotational fragmentation.Comment: 3 figure

ON THE IMF IN A TRIGGERED STAR FORMATION CONTEXT

The origin of the stellar initial mass function (IMF) is a fundamental issue in the theory of star formation. It is generally fit with a composite power law. Some clues on the progenitors can be found in dense starless cores that have a core mass function (CMF) with a similar shape. In the low-mass end, these mass functions increase with mass, albeit the sample may be somewhat incomplete; in the high-mass end, the mass functions decrease with mass. There is an offset in the turn-over mass between the two mass distributions. The stellar mass for the IMF peak is lower than the corresponding core mass for the CMF peak in the Pipe Nebula by about a factor of three. Smaller offsets are found between the IMF and the CMFs in other nebulae. We suggest that the offset is likely induced during a starburst episode of global star formation which is triggered by the formation of a few O/B stars in the multi-phase media, which naturally emerged through the onset of thermal instability in the cloud-core formation process. We consider the scenario that the ignition of a few massive stars photoionizes the warm medium between the cores, increases the external pressure, reduces their Bonnor-Ebert mass, and triggers the collapse of some previously stable cores. We quantitatively reproduce the IMF in the low-mass end with the assumption of additional rotational fragmentation

Detailed Numerical Simulations on the Formation of Pillars around HII-regions

We study the structural evolution of turbulent molecular clouds under the influence of ionizing radiation emitted from a nearby massive star by performing a high resolution parameter study with the iVINE code. The temperature is taken to be 10K or 100K, the mean number density is either 100cm^3 or 300cm^3. Besides, the turbulence is varied between Mach 1.5 and Mach 12.5 and the main driving scale between 1pc and 8pc. We vary the ionizing flux by an order of magnitude. In our simulations the ionizing radiation enhances the initial turbulent density distribution and thus leads to the formation of pillar-like structures observed adjacent to HII regions in a natural way. Gravitational collapse occurs regularly at the tips of the structures. We find a clear correlation between the initial state of the turbulent cold cloud and the final morphology and physical properties of the structures formed. The most favorable regime for the formation of pillars is Mach 4-10. Structures and therefore stars only form if the initial density contrast between the high density unionized gas and the gas that is going to be ionized is lower than the temperature contrast between the hot and the cold gas. The density of the resulting pillars is determined by a pressure equilibrium between the hot and the cold gas. A thorough analysis of the simulations shows that the complex kinematical and geometrical structure of the formed elongated filaments reflects that of observed pillars to an impressive level of detail. In addition, we find that the observed line-of sight velocities allow for a distinct determination of different formation mechanisms. Comparing the current simulations to previous results and recent observations we conclude that e.g. the pillars of creation in M16 formed by the mechanism proposed here and not by the radiation driven implosion of pre-existing clumps.Comment: 15 pages, 12 figures, accepted for publication in Ap