Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 1992/1993 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom

Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 1993/1994 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom

Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 1991/1992 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom

In situ measurement shows ocean boundary layer physical processes control catastrophic global warming.

The infrared greenhouse gas heat trap at the top of the atmosphere controls anthropogenic global warming (AGW) heat balance. Processes at the top of the ocean similarly control the 93% of AGW in the oceans. The tropics are a global year-round ocean heat source. Heat is transported in the ocean by sinking brine from tropical evaporation and polar freezing. Buoyant freshwater and ice barriers limit heat loss from the surface layer. The almost completely unstudied ocean surface skin is critically important to understanding global warming and climate change processes. Studies to date have concentrated on atmospheric warming mainly from land-air data. In this paper we present the first hourly meridional 3m and surface observations in the equatorial Pacific from Tahiti to Hawaii for direct measurement of evaporation and ocean boundary layer heat trapping. We relate this to poleward heat and freshwater transport and ocean warming moderation by basal icemelt of floating ice explored in a second paper [1]. We show heat sequestration below 3m in the hypersaline (>35.5°) southern hemisphere (SH) is limited to ~6M Jm -2 day-1 but evaporation is 7.3mmm-2day--1, at salinity ~36.4° and temperature >28ºC. In the northern hemisphere (NH) tropics the corresponding figures are ~12 MJm-2day-1 and ~4.5mmm -2day--1. Equatorial upwelling and the 50m deep Bering Strait limit buoyant surface outflow from the North Pacific. We found pairs of counter-rotating vertical meridional tropical cells (MTCs), ~300-1200km wide, ~100m deep form separate SH and NH systems with little cross-equatorial flux. Counter-rotating Lagrangian wind-driven gyres transport heat and freshwater polewards in seasonally and tidally moderated stratified surface waters. The zonal geostrophic balance is maintained by the Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC) with an eastbound core ~140cms-1 and density ~25.0 at 50-150m. Global warming and polar icemelt has been underestimated from wrong assumptions of the processes in the top 3m of oceans. These are the unverified beliefs that ocean evaporation depends on windspeed and relative humidity that the ocean is well mixed to 10m depths, and by neglect of water density determined by both salinity and temperature. Temperature measurement to±0.01ºC is required to account for the 3000x greater volumetric heat capacity of seawater to air (3.9x106: 1.3x103Jm-3°C-1). Most SST data are to atmospheric standards (>±0.5°C). Evaporation depends only on temperature (Clausius-Clapeyron). Heat sequestration depends on the buoyant surface layer processes and underlying density gradient. Eleven interconnected counter-rotating Lagrangian wind-driven surface gyres form a global circulation system that carries buoyant surface water masses at speeds much higher than Eulerian geostrophic currents. Polar ice may erode year-round from basal melting from warm subsurface water.This explains contrasting Arctic/Antarctic warming impacts. We suggest many more in situ 3m timeseries especially meridional ones are needed to confirm our findings. In a second paper on centennial daily surface timeseries we show ocean surface warming trend rate post about 1976-1986 is ~0.037ºCyr-1, i.e. >ºC in 20 years [1]. We suggest global warming research be concentrated on the top of the ocean through multidisciplinary timeseries fieldwork verification, monitoring and modeling. This would best be conducted through a cost-efficient dynamic adaptive scientific management for rapid determination of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Reducing troposphere greenhouse gases can only reduce warming. Mitigation maybe possible through heat energy extraction from geothermal, ocean, tidal and solar sources

Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 1996/1997 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom

What is the potential for biogas digesters to improve soil carbon sequestration in Sub-Saharan Africa? Comparison with other uses of organic residues

Acknowledgments We are very grateful to the UK Department for International Development (DFID) New and Emerging Technologies Research Call for funding this work. PS is a Royal Society-Wolfson Research Merit Award holder.Peer reviewedPostprin

What is the potential for biogas digesters to improve soil fertility and crop production in Sub-Saharan Africa?

Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the UK Department for International Development (DFID) New and Emerging Technologies Research Call for funding this work. PS is a Royal Society-Wolfson Research Merit Award holder.Peer reviewedPostprin

Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 2011/2012 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom

Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 2005/2006 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom

Lake Whatcom Monitoring Project 2007/2008 Report

This report is part of an on-going series of annual reports and special project reports that document the Lake Whatcom monitoring program. This work is conducted by the Institute for Watershed Studies and other departments at Western Washington University. The major objective of this program is to provide long-term baseline water quality monitoring in Lake Whatcom and selected tributaries. Each section contains brief explanations about the water quality data, along with discussions of patterns observed in Lake Whatcom