Juristische Aspekte der Ketzerverfolgung im Erzherzogtum Österreich in der Regierungszeit Karls VI.

Diese Arbeit setzt sich mit den juristischen Voraussetzungen der Transmigration der evangelischen Untertanen aus den österreichischen Erblanden nach Siebenbürgen unter der Regentschaft Kaiser Karls VI. auseinander. Im Besonderen wird untersucht, in welcher Weise das Corpus Evangelicorum den Glaubensbrüdern durch seine Interventionen Hilfestellung geben und deren Situation verändern oder verbessern konnte. Große Teile des Archivs des Corpus Evangelicorum befinden sich im Bestand des Sächsischen Staatsarchivs in Dresden, das dieser Untersuchung zugrunde gelegt wurde. Eine Darstellung der rechtlichen Entwicklung seit der Reformation mit den Bestimmungen des Augsburger Religionsfriedens und des Westfälischen Friedens war für das Verständnis erforderlich; insbesondere sollte aber auch gezeigt werden, welche Teile der Vertragswerke in den Erblanden tatsächlich Geltung hatten. Weiters wurde die Stellung des Corpus Evangelicorum in der Regierungszeit Karls VI. untersucht. Bis 1730 konnten die Evangelischen unter den üblichen Auflagen ohne besondere Beschränkungen in das Land ihrer Wahl emigrieren. Nach der Vertreibung der Salzburger Protestanten 1731/32 veränderte sich die Sachlage schlagartig. In den angrenzenden Gebieten des Salzkammergutes bekannten sich immer mehr Untertanen öffentlich zum evangelischen Glauben und wollten das Land verlassen. Um einen Exodus großer Bevölkerungsteile zu verhindern, machte der Kaiser zunächst Zugeständnisse. Die Anführer wurden als Rädelsführer gebrandmarkt. Da man keine Untertanen verlieren wollte, wurden sie innerhalb des eigenen Herrschaftsbereiches nach Siebenbürgen, einem dünn besiedeltes Land, in welchem der evangelische Glaube gemäß Leopoldinischem Diplom geduldet war, transmigriert. Das Corpus Evangelicorum sandte in den Jahren 1733, 1734 und 1735 Interzessions-Schreiben an den Kaiser, die aber von diesem nicht beantwortet wurden, sie blieben ohne Erfolg. Nach 1737 erfolgten unter Karl VI. keine Transmigrationen mehr. Unter Maria Theresia wurden nach 1752 die Deportationen wieder aufgenommen. Die Maßnahmen wurden wesentlich verschärft und konsequent durchgeführt. Das Corpus Evangelicorum verfasste in den Jahren 1753 und 1754 Interzessions-Schreiben. Im Gegensatz zu ihrem Vater beantwortete Maria Theresia diese Schreiben sehr ausführlich und ging auf das Vorbringen im Detail ein. Das Corpus Evangelicorum richtete aber überdies Interventionsschreiben an die Generalstaaten und die evangelischen Kantone in der Schweiz.This paper addresses the legal prerequisites for the forced migration of Protestant subjects from the Austrian Erblande (hereditary territories) to Transylvania under the reign of Emperor Karl VI. In particular, it investigates how the interventions of the Corpus Evangelicorum were in a position to assist its brothers in faith so as to change or improve their situation. This study is based on material from the archives of the Corpus Evangelicorum, a great deal of which is held by the Sächsische Staatsarchiv in Dresden. For better comprehension of the subject matter, it was necessary to first describe the legal developments that had taken place since the Reformation, including the provisions of the Religious Peace of Augsburg and the Peace of Westphalia; in particular, it was necessary to point out those parts of the legal framework that were actually in force in the Erblande. In addition, an analysis was made of the position of the Corpus Evangelicorum during the reign of Karl VI. Until 1730, Protestants were free to emigrate to their country of choice under prevailing conditions and without major limitations. The situation changed abruptly after the banishment of the Salzburg Protestants in 1731/32. A growing number of subjects in adjacent areas of the Salzkammergut region publicly confessed to the Protestant faith and wanted to leave the country. To prevent an exodus of major proportion, the Emperor’s response was accommodating at first. However, realising that all measures were in vain, the leaders were captured. They were denounced as leaders of the riots. In an effort not to lose any subjects, they were forced to migrate within the home territory, to Transylvania, a sparsely populated land where the Protestant faith was tolerated under the Leopoldinische Diplom. The present study also makes reference to the different treatment of migrants from the Salzkammergut region and from the province of Carinthia. In 1733, 1734 and 1735, respectively, the Corpus Evangelicorum dispatched letters of intercession to the Emperor, who never responded; hence they never rendered any result. After 1737, no further forced migration took place under Karl VI. After 1752, deportations were consistently resumed under Maria Theresia, with much greater impact. In 1753 and 1754, the Corpus Evangelicorum prepared several letters of intercession. Unlike her father, Maria Theresia responded to these letters and requests in great detail. Moreover, the Corpus Evangelicorum also addressed letters of intervention to the Generalstaaten and to the Protestant cantons in Switzerland

Bovine Staphylococcus aureus: Subtyping, evolution, and zoonotic transfer.

Staphylococcus aureus is globally one of the most important pathogens causing contagious mastitis in cattle. Previous studies using ribosomal spacer (RS)-PCR, however, demonstrated in Swiss cows that Staph. aureus isolated from bovine intramammary infections are genetically heterogeneous, with Staph. aureus genotype B (GTB) and GTC being the most prominent genotypes. Furthermore, Staph. aureus GTB was found to be contagious, whereas Staph. aureus GTC and all the remaining genotypes were involved in individual cow disease. In addition to RS-PCR, other methods for subtyping Staph. aureus are known, including spa typing and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). They are based on sequencing the spa and various housekeeping genes, respectively. The aim of the present study was to compare the 3 analytic methods using 456 strains of Staph. aureus isolated from milk of bovine intramammary infections and bulk tanks obtained from 12 European countries. Furthermore, the phylogeny of animal Staph. aureus was inferred and the zoonotic transfer of Staph. aureus between cattle and humans was studied. The analyzed strains could be grouped into 6 genotypic clusters, with CLB, CLC, and CLR being the most prominent ones. Comparing the 3 subtyping methods, RS-PCR showed the highest resolution, followed by spa typing and MLST. We found associations among the methods but in many cases they were unsatisfactory except for CLB and CLC. Cluster CLB was positive for clonal complex (CC)8 in 99% of the cases and typically positive for t2953; it is the cattle-adapted form of CC8. Cluster CLC was always positive for t529 and typically positive for CC705. For CLR and the remaining subtypes, links among the 3 methods were generally poor. Bovine Staph. aureus is highly clonal and a few clones predominate. Animal Staph. aureus always evolve from human strains, such that every human strain may be the ancestor of a novel animal-adapted strain. The zoonotic transfer of IMI- and milk-associated strains of Staph. aureus between cattle and humans seems to be very limited and different hosts are not considered as a source for mutual, spontaneous infections. Spillover events, however, may happen

Staphylococcus aureus genotype B and other genotypes isolated from cow milk in European countries

Staphylococcus aureus is globally one of the most important pathogens causing contagious mastitis in cattle. Previous studies, however, have demonstrated in Swiss cows that Staph. aureus isolated from bovine intramammary infection is genetically heterogeneous, with Staph. aureus genotype B (GTB) and GTC being the most prominent genotypes. In addition, Staph. aureus GTB was found to be contagious, whereas Staph. aureus GTC and all the remaining genotypes were involved in individual cow disease. The aim of this study was to subtype strains of Staph. aureus isolated from bovine mastitic milk and bulk tank milk to obtain a unified view of the presence of bovine staphylococcal subtypes in 12 European countries. A total of 456 strains of Staph. aureus were subjected to different typing methods: ribosomal spacer PCR, detection of enterotoxin genes, and detection of gene polymorphisms (lukE, coa). Major genotypes with their variants were combined into genotypic clusters (CL). This study revealed 5 major CL representing 76% of all strains and comprised CLB, CLC, CLF, CLI, and CLR. The clusters were characterized by the same genetic properties as the Swiss isolates, demonstrating high clonality of bovine Staph. aureus. Interestingly, CLB was situated in central Europe whereas the other CL were widely disseminated. The remaining 24% of the strains comprised 41 genotypes and variants, some of which (GTAM, GTBG) were restricted to certain countries; many others, however, were observed only once

Real-time deformability cytometry: on-the-fly cell mechanical phenotyping

We introduce real-time deformability cytometry (RT-DC) for continuous cell mechanical characterization of large populations (> 100,000 cells) with analysis rates greater than 100 cells/s. RT-DC is sensitive to cytoskeletal alterations and can distinguish cell-cycle phases, track stem cell differentiation into distinct lineages and identify cell populations in whole blood by their mechanical fingerprints. This technique adds a new marker-free dimension to flow cytometry with diverse applications in biology, biotechnology and medicine