Thermalisation of self-interacting solar flare fast electrons

Most theoretical descriptions of the production of solar flare bremsstrahlung radiation assume the collision of dilute accelerated particles with a cold, dense target plasma, neglecting interactions of the fast particles with each other. This is inadequate for situations where collisions with this background plasma are not completely dominant, as may be the case in, for example, low-density coronal sources. We aim to formulate a model of a self-interacting, entirely fast electron population in the absence of a dense background plasma, to investigate its implications for observed bremsstrahlung spectra and the flare energy budget. We derive approximate expressions for the time-dependent distribution function of the fast electrons using a Fokker-Planck approach. We use these expressions to generate synthetic bremsstrahlung X-ray spectra as would be seen from a corresponding coronal source. We find that our model qualitatively reproduces the observed behaviour of some flares. As the flare progresses, the model's initial power-law spectrum is joined by a lower energy, thermal component. The power-law component diminishes, and the growing thermal component proceeds to dominate the total emission over timescales consistent with flare observations. The power-law exhibits progressive spectral hardening, as is seen in some flare coronal sources. We also find that our model requires a factor of 7 - 10 fewer accelerated electrons than the cold, thick target model to generate an equivalent hard X-ray flux. This model forms the basis of a treatment of self-interactions among flare fast electrons, a process which affords a more efficient means to produce bremsstrahlung photons and so may reduce the efficiency requirements placed on the particle acceleration mechanism. It also provides a useful description of the thermalisation of fast electrons in coronal sources.Comment: 9 pages, 7 figures, accepted for Astronomy & Astrophysics; this version clarifies arguments around Eqs. (11) and (20

Impact of Unexpected Events, Shocking News and Rumours on Foreign Exchange Market Dynamics

We analyze the dynamical response of the world's financial community to various types of unexpected events, including the 9/11 terrorist attacks as they unfolded on a minute-by-minute basis. We find that there are various 'species' of news, characterized by how quickly the news get absorbed, how much meaning and importance is assigned to it by the community, and what subsequent actions are then taken. For example, the response to the unfolding events of 9/11 shows a gradual collective understanding of what was happening, rather than an immediate realization. For news items which are not simple economic statements, and hence whose implications are not immediately obvious, we uncover periods of collective discovery during which collective opinions seem to oscillate in a remarkably synchronized way. In the case of a rumour, our findings also provide a concrete example of contagion in inter-connected communities. Practical applications of this work include the possibility of producing selective newsfeeds for specific communities, based on their likely impact

Certification in molecular pathology in the united states: An update from the association for molecular pathology training and education committee

The past 25 years have witnessed the field of molecular pathology evolving from an imprecisely defined discipline to a firmly established medical subspecialty that plays an essential role in patient care. During this time, the training, certification, and licensure requirements for directing and performing testing in a molecular pathology or molecular diagnostics laboratory have become better defined. The purpose of this document is to describe the various board certifications available to individuals seeking certification in molecular diagnostics at the level of laboratory director, supervisor, or technologist. Several national organizations offer certification in molecular pathology or molecular diagnostics for doctoral-level clinical scientists to function as the director of a molecular diagnostics laboratory. Furthermore, 12 states and Puerto Rico require licensing of medical technologists, including those working in molecular diagnostic laboratories. The information provided here updates a 2002 document by the Training and Education Committee of the Association for Molecular Pathology and has been expanded to include certification and licensing requirements for laboratory technologists

Regularized energy-dependent solar flare hard x-ray spectral index

The deduction from solar flare X-ray photon spectroscopic data of the energy dependent model-independent spectral index is considered as an inverse problem. Using the well developed regularization approach we analyze the energy dependency of spectral index for a high resolution energy spectrum provided by Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI). The regularization technique produces much smoother derivatives while avoiding additional errors typical of finite differences. It is shown that observations imply a spectral index varying significantly with energy, in a way that also varies with time as the flare progresses. The implications of these findings are discussed in the solar flare context.Comment: 13 pages; 5 figures, Solar Physics in pres

Compton backscattered and primary X-rays from solar flares: angle dependent Green's function correction for photospheric albedo

The observed hard X-ray (HXR) flux spectrum $I(\epsilon)$ from solar flares is a combination of primary bremsstrahlung photons $I_P(\epsilon)$ with a spectrally modified component from photospheric Compton backscatter of downward primary emission. The latter can be significant, distorting or hiding the true features of the primary spectrum which are key diagnostics for acceleration and propagation of high energy electrons and of their energy budget. For the first time in solar physics, we use a Green's function approach to the backscatter spectral deconvolution problem, constructing a Green's matrix including photoelectric absorption. This approach allows spectrum-independent extraction of the primary spectrum for several HXR flares observed by the {\it Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager} (RHESSI). We show that the observed and primary spectra differ very substantially for flares with hard spectra close to the disk centre. We show in particular that the energy dependent photon spectral index $\gamma (\epsilon)=-d \log I/d \log \epsilon$ is very different for $I_P(\epsilon)$ and for $I(\epsilon)$ and that inferred mean source electron spectra ${\bar F}(E)$ differ greatly. Even for a forward fitting of a parametric ${\bar F}(E)$ to the data, a clear low-energy cutoff required to fit $I(\epsilon)$ essentially disappears when the fit is to $I_P(\epsilon)$ - i.e. when albedo correction is included. The self-consistent correction for backscattered photons is thus shown to be crucial in determining the energy spectra of flare accelerated electrons, and hence their total number and energy.Comment: 8 pages, 8 figures, Accepted to Astronomy and Astrophysic

Human candidate gene polymorphisms and risk of severe malaria in children in Kilifi, Kenya: a case-control association study

Background: Human genetic factors are important determinants of malaria risk. We investigated associations between multiple candidate polymorphisms—many related to the structure or function of red blood cells—and risk for severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria and its specific phenotypes, including cerebral malaria, severe malaria anaemia, and respiratory distress. Methods: We did a case-control study in Kilifi County, Kenya. We recruited as cases children presenting with severe malaria to the high-dependency ward of Kilifi County Hospital. We included as controls infants born in the local community between Aug 1, 2006, and Sept 30, 2010, who were part of a genetics study. We tested for associations between a range of candidate malaria-protective genes and risk for severe malaria and its specific phenotypes. We used a permutation approach to account for multiple comparisons between polymorphisms and severe malaria. We judged p values less than 0·005 significant for the primary analysis of the association between candidate genes and severe malaria. Findings: Between June 11, 1995, and June 12, 2008, 2244 children with severe malaria were recruited to the study, and 3949 infants were included as controls. Overall, 263 (12%) of 2244 children with severe malaria died in hospital, including 196 (16%) of 1233 with cerebral malaria. We investigated 121 polymorphisms in 70 candidate severe malaria-associated genes. We found significant associations between risk for severe malaria overall and polymorphisms in 15 genes or locations, of which most were related to red blood cells: ABO, ATP2B4, ARL14, CD40LG, FREM3, INPP4B, G6PD, HBA (both HBA1 and HBA2), HBB, IL10, LPHN2 (also known as ADGRL2), LOC727982, RPS6KL1, CAND1, and GNAS. Combined, these genetic associations accounted for 5·2% of the variance in risk for developing severe malaria among individuals in the general population. We confirmed established associations between severe malaria and sickle-cell trait (odds ratio [OR] 0·15, 95% CI 0·11–0·20; p=2·61 × 10−58), blood group O (0·74, 0·66–0·82; p=6·26 × 10−8), and –α3·7-thalassaemia (0·83, 0·76–0·90; p=2·06 × 10−6). We also found strong associations between overall risk of severe malaria and polymorphisms in both ATP2B4 (OR 0·76, 95% CI 0·63–0·92; p=0·001) and FREM3 (0·64, 0·53–0·79; p=3·18 × 10−14). The association with FREM3 could be accounted for by linkage disequilibrium with a complex structural mutation within the glycophorin gene region (comprising GYPA, GYPB, and GYPE) that encodes for the rare Dantu blood group antigen. Heterozygosity for Dantu was associated with risk for severe malaria (OR 0·57, 95% CI 0·49–0·68; p=3·22 × 10−11), as was homozygosity (0·26, 0·11–0·62; p=0·002). Interpretation: Both ATP2B4 and the Dantu blood group antigen are associated with the structure and function of red blood cells. ATP2B4 codes for plasma membrane calcium-transporting ATPase 4 (the major calcium pump on red blood cells) and the glycophorins are ligands for parasites to invade red blood cells. Future work should aim at uncovering the mechanisms by which these polymorphisms can result in severe malaria protection and investigate the implications of these associations for wider health. Funding: Wellcome Trust, UK Medical Research Council, European Union, and Foundation for the National Institutes of Health as part of the Bill & Melinda Gates Grand Challenges in Global Health Initiative

Modelling the impact of intermittent preventive treatment for malaria on selection pressure for drug resistance

BACKGROUND: Intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) is a promising intervention for malaria control, although there are concerns about its impact on drug resistance. METHODS: The key model inputs are age-specific values for a) baseline anti-malarial dosing rate, b) parasite prevalence, and c) proportion of those treated with anti-malarials (outside IPT) who are infected. These are used to estimate the immediate effect of IPT on the genetic coefficient of selection (s). The scenarios modelled were year round IPT to infants in rural southern Tanzania, and three doses at monthly intervals of seasonal IPT in Senegal. RESULTS: In the simulated Tanzanian setting, the model suggests a high selection pressure for drug resistance, but that IPTi would only increase this by a small amount (4.4%). The percent change in s is larger if parasites are more concentrated in infants, or if baseline drug dosing is less common or less specific. If children aged up to five years are included in the Tanzanian scenario then the predicted increase in s rises to 31%. The Senegalese seasonal IPT scenario, in children up to five years, results in a predicted increase in s of 16%. CONCLUSION: There is a risk that the useful life of drugs will be shortened if IPT is implemented over a wide childhood age range. On the other hand, IPT delivered only to infants is unlikely to appreciably shorten the useful life of the drug used