La datación dendrocronológica en el estudio de los edificios históricos

[EN] This article addresses the discipline of dendrochronology and, especially, one of its most useful aspects for the study, restoration and appreciation of architectonic heritage: dating. In its pages it deals with the origin, foundations and principles of this technique, the requisites for its application, the different ways of obtaining samples, the use of statistics and the various difficulties, limitations and aspects of dating. Finally, it touches upon the ­field of dendroprovenance, that is, the technique used to discover the geographic origin of timber by means of concrete examples of works performed by the authors, such as the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Palestine.[ES] El presente artículo aborda la disciplina de la dendrocronología y, en especial, uno de sus aspectos más útiles para el estudio, restauración y puesta en valor del patrimonio arquitectónico: la datación. En sus páginas se trata del origen, fundamentos y principios de esta técnica, los requisitos para su aplicación, las diversas formas de obtener muestras, el concurso de la estadística y las diferentes dificultades, limitaciones y facetas de la datación. Por último, se trata el campo de la dendroproveniencia, esto es, la técnica empleada para averiguar el origen geográfico de la madera, a través de ejemplos concretos realizados por los autores, como la Basílica de la Natividad de Belén en Palestina.Bernabei, M.; Macchioni, N. (2012). La datación dendrocronológica en el estudio de los edificios históricos. Loggia, Arquitectura & Restauración. (24-25):104-111. doi:10.4995/loggia.2012.3003SWORD10411124-25BAILLIE, M. G. L.; PILCHER, J. R.,: "A simple cross-dating program for tree-ring research", en Tree-Ring Bull, 1973, 33: 7-14.BERNABEI, M.; BONTADI, J.; ROSSI ROGNONi, G.: "A dendrochronological investigation of stringed instruments from the collection of the Cherubini Conservatory in Florence, Italy", en Journal of Archaeological Science, 2010, 37: 192-200.BERNABEI, M.; QUARTA, G.; CALCAGNILE, L.; MACCHIONI, N.,: "Dating and technological features of wooden panel painting attributed to Cesare da Sesto", en Journal of Cultural Heritage, 2007, 8: 202-208.BONTADI, J.; BERNABEI, M.: "The Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem: an historical reconstruction using dendrochronology", en 5th International Congress "Science and Technology for the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Basin", Istanbul, Turkey, 22nd-25th November 2011.BOURQUIN-MIGNOT, C.; GIRARDCLOS, O.: "Construction d'une longue chronologie de hetre au pays basque. Sud Ouest Européen", 2001, pp.1-14.BROWN, D. M.; BAILLIE, M. G. L.: "Construction and dating of a 5000 year English bog oak tree-ring chronology", en Tree rings and environment, LUNDQUA report, 1992, 34: 75-5.DEAN, J. S. : A model of Anasazi behavioral adaptation, en The Anasazi in a changing environment, Ed. by George J. Gumerman, pp. 25-44. Cambridge Univo Press, Cambridge, 1988.ECKSTEIN, D.: "Human time in tree rings", en Dendrochronologia, 2007, 24: 53-60.FIORAVANTI, M.: "Le specie legnose dei supporti: implicazioniper la conoscenza, la conservazione ed il restauro dei dipinti su tavola", en Conservazione dei dipinti su tavola, de UZIELLI, L. y CASAZZA, O. Nardini Ed., Firenze, 1994, pp. 83-109.FRIEDRICH, M.; REMMELE, S.; KROMER, B.; HOFMANN, J.; SPURK, M.; FELIX KAISER, K.; ORCEL, C.; KÜPPERS, M.: "The 12,460-year Hohenheim oak and pine tree-ring chronology from central Europe-a unique annual record for radiocarbon calibration and paleoenvironment reconstructions", en Radiocarbon, 2004, 46 (3): 1111-1122.FRITTS, H.C.: Tree Rings and Climate, Academic Press, London, 1976, 576 pp.GIL MONTERO, R.; VILLALBA R.: "Tree rings as a surrogate for economic stress - an example from the Puna of Jujuy, Argentina in the 19th century", en Dendrochronologia, 2005, 22: 141-147.JUDD, N.M.: "Dating our prehistoric Pueblo ruins", en Explorations and Fieldwork of the Smithsonian Institution in 1929, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 1930, pp. 167-176.KAENNEL, M.; SCHWEINGRUBER, F. H. (1995): Multilingual Glossary of Dendrochronology, WSL/ FNP, Birmensdorf, Haupt Pub. Berne, Stuttgart, Vienna, ISBN 3-258-05259-X.Norma UNI 11141 (2004): Linee guida per la datazione dendrocronologica del legno. Ente Nazionale Italiano di Uni cazione, Milano.SANDER, C.; LEVANIC, T.: "Comparison of t-values calculated in different dendrochronological programmes", en Dendrochronologia, 1997, 14: pp. 269-272

Traditional Constructive Techniques and Their Relation to Geographical Conditioning Factors. The Case of Half-Timbered Walls in Spain

[EN] Traditional architecture is the result of collective experience in the optimum use of available materials in a given location and adapted to specific conditions and needs. Although forms and groups also depend on other cultural and social issues, the constructive techniques used depend mostly on geographical conditioning factors such as altitude, hydrography, lithology, climate, etc. This text aims to analyse the possible relationships among the multiple variants and specific geographical conditioning factors of each location; in turn, this should provide an understanding of the reasons motivating or reducing their use and the mechanisms adapting these techniques to these conditioning factors. The analysis cross-referenced GIS systems from a database compiling information on 1160 half-timbered walls with a series of themed maps containing information on geographical factors. The conclusions reached show that a single technique adapts to different geographical conditioning factors, giving rise to a wide range of solutions which can provide greater durability and improved habitability. This capacity to adapt to the location is a lesson in sustainability that can be applied at present and is above all part of the intrinsic wealth and value of traditional architecture.This work is part of the research project "La arquitectura de tierra en la Peninsula Iberica: Estudio de los riesgos naturales, sociales y antropicos y estrategias de intervencion e incremento de la resiliencia" Risk-Terra (ref. RTI2018-095302-B-I00, MCIU/AEI/FEDER, UE; main researchers: Camilla Mileto & Fernando Vegas), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities/Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades. This research has been developed within a doctoral thesis funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities/Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades (Ref. FPU18/01596). Funding for open access charge: Universitat Politecnica de Valencia [FPU18/01596,RTI2018-095302-B-I00].Hueto-Escobar, A.; Mileto, C.; Vegas López-Manzanares, F.; Macchioni, N. (2022). Traditional Constructive Techniques and Their Relation to Geographical Conditioning Factors. The Case of Half-Timbered Walls in Spain. International journal of architectural heritage (electronic). 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2022.215588412

Stand structure and anatomical, physical and mechanical characterisation of sessile oak (Quercus petraea Liebl.) wood from central Italy aged coppices.

The present paper aims to implement the knowledge on sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) in Mediterranean area where, although present, for natural or anthropogenic causes, the species is rare. The focus is on two sessile oak stands in Tuscany (central Italy), classified as worthy of protection for their importance both in a local-national and European context. In addition to the environmental and stand structural characteristics, some technological properties of sessile oak wood grown there, comparing the obtained results to the bibliographic data were provided. The examined wood characteristics are anatomical parameters (growth ring thickness, earlywood and latewood thickness, fiber length, earlywood and latewood vessel diameter, amount of earlywood and latewood vessel) and the physical and mechanical parameters (density, modulus of elasticity, strength, hardness). No appreciable technological differences issued between the examined wood in the two stands and the wood from the same species, but from other Italian and French provenances, obtained from literature. Results highlighted, although managed as coppice in the past, the material is suitable for the reforestation of this endangered species in suitable areas, always taking into account that the quality of the wood is determined not only by the basic technological properties of a certain wood, but also, and mostly, by the growing conditions of the trees and particularly by the sylvicultural management of the stand

Mechanical and physical properties of Cunninghamia lanceolata wood decayed by brown rot

CITATION: Li, S., et al. 2019. Mechanical and physical properties of Cunninghamia lanceolata wood decayed by brown rot. iForest: Biogeosciences and Forestry, 12(3):317-322, doi:10.3832/ifor2922-012.The original publication is available at http://iforest.sisef.orgENGLISH ABSTRACT: The relationship between the mechanical properties of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Chinese fir) wood and the development of fungal decay was investigated with the aim of implementing a statistical model useful as a non-destructive and a fast method for determining the state of conservation of in-service timber structures. Artificial decay due to brown rot fungi was induced on wood specimens and physical and mechanical test were performed periodically, as well as anatomical observation of wood, FT-IR spectroscopic and XRD diffraction analysis. As a result, Chinese fir was confirmed to have a good durability against fungi, showing a mass loss percentage of 7.21% on average after 14 weeks of exposure. On the contrary, the mechanical properties reduced dramatically during the decay test: a 19% decrease was observed for compression strength and 21% for tensile strength. The mechanism of decay was explored and the corresponding damage constitutive model was proposed.https://iforest.sisef.org/contents/?id=ifor2922-012Publisher's versio

Diagnóstico estructural de estructuras de madera históricas: La sala diplomática del Palacio Real de Nápoles

[EN] The aim of this article is to describe the diagnosis process made on the timber structure that holds up the vault of the Diplomatic Room of the Royal Palace in Naples (Italy). After a brief historical description of the Royal Palace and the Diplomatic Room, it discusses the methodology according to Italian regulations and the speci­fic problems that arose during the works. To complete the diagnosis, a dendrochronological analysis of the wooden elements was performed. The results show the residual mechanical properties of each structural element and the main problems to be resolved by the restorers. The dendrochronological conclusions yield that the dating of the elements is compatible with that of the frescoes on the vault and therefore demonstrate that the elements have not been replaced.[ES] El objetivo de este artículo es describir el proceso diagnóstico realizado en la estructura de madera que sostiene la bóveda de la Sala Diplomática del Palacio Real de Nápoles (Italia). Tras una breve descripción histórica del Palacio Real y la Sala Diplomática, se detalla la metodología conforme a la normativa italiana, y los problemas específicos que surgieron durante las operaciones. Para completar el diagnóstico, se realizó un análisis dendrocronológico de los elementos de madera. Los resultados muestran las propiedades mecánicas residuales de cada elemento estructural así como los principales problemas que deben ser resueltos por los restauradores. Las conclusiones dendrocronológicas muestran que la datación de los elementos de madera es compatible con la de los frescos de la bóveda y, por lo tanto, demuestra que los elementos no han sido reemplazados.Calicchio, D.; Bernabei, M.; Brunetti, M.; Crivellaro, A.; Macchioni, N.; Pollini, C. (2012). Diagnóstico estructural de estructuras de madera históricas: La sala diplomática del Palacio Real de Nápoles. Loggia, Arquitectura & Restauración. (24-25):112-121. doi:10.4995/loggia.2012.3007SWORD11212124-25BERNETTI, G.: Selvicoltura speciale, UTET, Torino, 1995.BONAMINI, G.; UZIELLI, L.; CECCOTTI, A.: "Sulla valutazione della resistenza meccanica del legno antico", en L'Edilizia, 1991, 5(12):771-777.BONAMINI, G.: "Restoring timber structures-Inspection and evaluation", en Lecture D3: Timber engineering STEP2 - Design - Details and structural systems, STEP/EUROFORTECH, Centrum Hout, The Netherlands, 1995, pp.D3/1-9.FONTI, P.; MACCHIONI, N.; THIBAUT, B.: "Ring shake in Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.): state of the art", en Annals of Forest Science, 2002, 59 (2): 129-139.MACCHIONI, N.: "Inspection techniques for ancient wooden structures", en Structural analysis of historical constructions II de ROCA, P.; GONZÁLES, J.L.; ONATE, E.; LOURENÇO, P.B. Editors, Cimne, 1998, pp. 149-162.MACCHIONI, N. & PIAZZA, M.: "Italian standardisation activity in the field of diagnosis and restoration of ancient timber structures", en Structural analysis of historical construction, de LOURENCO, P.B.; ROCA, P.; MODENA, C.; AGRAWAL, S.; Eds., New Dehli, 2006, pp. 395-404.PIOVESAN, G.; BERNABEI, M.; DI FILIPPO, A.; ROMAGNOLI, M.; SCHIRONE, B.: "A long-term tree ring beech chronology from a highelevation old-growth forest of Central Italy", en Dendrochronologia, 2003, 21(1): 13-22.SCHWEINGRUBER, F. H.: "Data archived at the World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Boulder Colorado USA", en http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/ftp-treering.html, 1980.TAMPONE, G.; MANNUCCI, M.; MACCHIONI, N.: Strutture di legno. Cultura, conservazione e restauro, De Lettera, Milano, 2002.EN 334-1/2: Durability of wood and wood-based products. Definition of hazard classes of biological attack, General, 1993.UNI 11119: Cultural heritage - Wooden artefacts- Load-bearing structures - On site inspections for the diagnosis of timber members, UNI (Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione), 2004

A peculiar Spanish Timber Floor, the "Revoltón": a Diagnostic Example at the "Palacio del Marqués de Benicarló"

The paper deals with the application of the Italian method for assessing on-site and diagnosing timber elements to a distinctive Spanish type of horizontal structure called "revolton" i.e. jack arch floor. As in Spain does not exist a specific regulation for the on-site diagnosis of timber elements, this analysis was performed according to the Italian standard UNI 11119. Due to the peculiar features of the jack arch floor some modifications were applied to the method. During spring 2012 the authors had the opportunity to carry out a pilot project by making a diagnostic analysis on a whole three stories building. The building, Marquees of Benicarlo's Palace, located in Spain in the town of Benicarlo, between Barcelona and Valencia, was erected during the second half of the XVIII century. It maintains the original internal distribution and structure, and it is characterized by precious ceramic decorations on walls and floors. All the horizontal structures studied inside the palace were jack arch floor except the roof structure that was also made of timber. The results of the project described in the paper clarify the specific problems of the horizontal structures and the roof surveyed during the fieldwork. These results are accompanied by several plans that represent the information recovered on-site and lead to a complete assessment of the structures. The plans include the grading based on wood defects, the local moisture content of wood, the superficial and inner decay due to insects and rot and the deformation of the joists. In this way it was possible to locate the areas of the palace where more problems were concentrated, and better understand the causes and origin of the damages.Diodato, M.; Macchioni, N.; Brunetti, M.; Pizzo, B.; Nocetti, M.; Burato, P.; Sozzi, L.... (2013). A peculiar Spanish Timber Floor, the "Revoltón": a Diagnostic Example at the "Palacio del Marqués de Benicarló". Advanced Materials Research. 778:1064-1071. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.778.1064S10641071778E. Cubero, El lujo señorial de lo sencillo (The noble luxury of simplicity), Revistart: Revista de las artes, 125 (2007) pp.8-10.C. Colón de Carvajal y Fibla, La casa-palacio de los Marqueses de Benicarló (The Marquees of Benicarló's Palace), Numen. Revista de excelencia, (2011) on-line.La casa de los Marqueses de Benicarló nos abre sus puertas (The Marquees of Benicarló's House opens its doors), MasQrural, 21 (2008) pp.85-94.M. Diodato, Variaciones constructivas y formales en forjados y cubiertas (Constructive and formal variations in floors and roofs), in: F. Vegas, C. Mileto, Valencia. Centro histórico. Ocho siglos de arquitectura residencial (Historic centre. Eight Centuries of residential architecture), Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, (2013).N. Macchioni, Inspection techniques for ancient wooden structures, in: P. Roca, J.L. Gonzalez, E. Onate, P.B. Lourenco (Eds. ), Structural analysis of historical constructions II: possibilities of numerical and experimental techniques, CIMNE, Barcelona, 1998, pp.149-162.N. Macchioni, M. Piazza, Italian standardization activity in the field of diagnosis and restoration of ancient timber structures, in: F.M. Mazzolani (Ed. ), Protection of historical buildings - PROHITECH 09, vol. 1-2, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2009, pp.349-353.G. Lear, B. Kasal, R. Anthony, Resistance drilling, in: B. Kasal, T. Tannert (Eds. ), In situ assessment of structural timber, State of the art report of the RILEM TC 215-AST, Springer.N. Macchioni, M. Brunetti, B. Pizzo, P. Burato, M. Nocetti, S. Palanti, The timber structures in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem: Typologies and diagnosis, Journal of cultural heritage, Vol. 13 Issue 4 Supplement S (2012) pp. E42-E53

Understanding Spanish Timber Jack Arch Floors: Examples of Assessment and Conservation Issues

[EN] Jack arch floors are structures made of timber joists, with round or squared section, and segmental vaults either made of flat tiles or poured plaster conglomerate. They are especially diffused along the Mediterranean coast of Spain and can be considered as a main feature of the historical and vernacular architecture of the area. In order to assess and grade these structures several Spanish standards have been considered; however, even if the information contained is useful the Italian standard for the on-site diagnosis UNI 11119 of 2004 has been preferred. The method described in this standard leads the assessment through the grading of each and every timber element and the assignation of bearing properties that are essential for the consolidation project. This article will expose three examples of jack arch floors of the Valencian Community graded using the Italian standard and the conservation issues that arise from the results.Diodato, M.; Macchioni, N.; Brunetti, M.; Pizzo, B.; Nocetti, M.; Burato, P.; Sozzi, L.... (2015). Understanding Spanish Timber Jack Arch Floors: Examples of Assessment and Conservation Issues. International Journal of Architectural Heritage. 9(6):641-654. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2015.104119364165496Diodato, M., Macchioni, N., Brunetti, M., Pizzo, B., Nocetti, M., Burato, P., … Mileto, C. (2013). A Peculiar Spanish Timber Floor, the «Revoltón»: A Diagnostic Example at the «Palacio del Marqués de Benicarló». Advanced Materials Research, 778, 1064-1071. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.778.1064Lear, G., Kasal, B., & Anthony, R. (2010). Resistance Drilling. RILEM State of the Art Reports, 51-57. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0560-9_5Macchioni, N., Brunetti, M., Pizzo, B., Burato, P., Nocetti, M., & Palanti, S. (2012). The timber structures in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem: Typologies and diagnosis. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 13(4), e42-e53. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2012.10.004Riggio, M., Anthony, R. W., Augelli, F., Kasal, B., Lechner, T., Muller, W., & Tannert, T. (2013). In situ assessment of structural timber using non-destructive techniques. Materials and Structures, 47(5), 749-766. doi:10.1617/s11527-013-0093-6Tannert, T., Anthony, R. W., Kasal, B., Kloiber, M., Piazza, M., Riggio, M., … Yamaguchi, N. (2013). In situ assessment of structural timber using semi-destructive techniques. Materials and Structures, 47(5), 767-785. doi:10.1617/s11527-013-0094-5Vegas, F. (2013). Parameterisation of Gypsum Mortar for Alternative Structural Consolidation of Traditional Floors. Advances in Materials, 2(4), 48. doi:10.11648/j.am.20130204.1

Age-related changes in bile acid synthesis and hepatic nuclear receptor expression

BACKGROUND:Recent data highlighted the role of nuclear receptors in the transcriptional regulation of the limiting enzyme of bile acid synthesis, cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, in cellular and animal models. This study was designed to analyze the effects of age on cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase and related nuclear receptor expression in human livers.DESIGN:Surgical liver biopsies were obtained in 23 patients requiring operation on the gastrointestinal tract. mRNA levels of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase and related nuclear receptors and co-activators were assayed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Serum levels of 7alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one, a marker of bile acid synthesis, were assayed by gas-liquid chromatography:mass spectrometry.RESULTS:Ageing was inversely correlated with serum 7alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one and with cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase mRNA levels (r = -0.44 and r = -0.45 on a semi-log scale, respectively, P < 0.05). Among different nuclear factors, cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase mRNA best correlated with hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 (r = 0.55 on a log scale, P < 0.05); hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 levels were also inversely correlated with age (r = -0.64 on a semi-log scale, P < 0.05). Age was inversely correlated with serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels, which were directly correlated with hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 and cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase expression. No suppressive effect of short heterodimer partner expression on cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase was observed.CONCLUSIONS:Ageing associates with reduced bile acid synthesis, possibly related to decreased hepatic expression of hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 and consequently of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase. Age-related modifications of the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor axis might play a role. These findings may help to elucidate the pathophysiology of age-related modifications of cholesterol metabolism

Wood properties of young Douglas-fir in Southern Italy: results over a 12-year post-thinning period

This paper describes the study of a 31-year-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) stand located in Southern Italy, which was thinned 19 years after planting. The aim of the study is to evaluate the influence of three thinning treatments (unthinned, selective, and geometrical) performed twelve years later on wood density (WD), moisture content, shrinkage, ring width (RW), latewood proportion (LW%), modulus of elasticity, compression (CS), and bending strength (BS). The WD was higher in the unthinned stand. LW% and BS were lowest in the selective thinning and in the geometrical thinning, respectively. No significant differences were found in other variables. In addition, the thinning processes mostly affected the medium tree class more than the dominant and suppressed ones. Regression analysis established a correlation between mechanical characteristics and WD, RW and LW%. Mechanical strength is strongly correlated with WD than other variables. The stepwise model showed that WD and RW are most closely related to the behavior of CS, whereas only WD explained variation in BS. Stand density reduction may improve the development of stands without greatly affecting wood quality

Ring shake in chestnut: Anatomical description, extent and frequency of failures

Ring shake is a wood defect that occurs very frequently in sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.). By examining this particular kind of wood failure it is apparent that, at an anatomical level, separations occurring in the wood tissue show different features. In order to collect further information to help in understanding the causes that lead to the development of ring shake, a microscopic description and a quantification of these different ring shake typologies has been performed on 45 chestnut wood discs. Results showed that among the various shake types encountered, the crack-form, i.e. the failure that develops across the earlywood cell walls, is largely the most frequent and is principally found in fresh felled wood. Detailed observations reinforce the belief that the set off mechanism leading to crack-failure is related to the combined interaction of the structural weakness of chestnut wood with growth stresses developed in the stem.La roulure du châtaignier : description anatomique, ampleur et fréquences des séparations. La roulure est un défaut du bois qui se produit très fréquemment dans le châtaignier (Castanea sativa Mill.). En examinant ce genre particulier de rupture il est visible au niveau anatomique que les séparations qui se produisent dans le bois montrent des faciès de rupture différents. Afin de disposer d'informations nécessaires à la compréhension des causes qui mènent au développement de la roulure, une description microscopique et une quantification des différentes typologies de roulure ont été effectuées sur 45 disques de châtaignier. Les résultats ont montré que parmi les divers types de roulure observés, la forme de rupture “crack”, c'est-à-dire la séparation qui se développe à travers les parois cellulaires des vaisseaux du bois initial, est la plus fréquente et se présente principalement dans le bois fraîchement abattu. Les observations microscopiques détaillées renforcent la conviction que le mécanisme conduisant à cette forme de rupture est lié à la faiblesse structurale du bois de châtaignier combinée avec les contraintes de croissance développées dans la tige