Pacing and Self-regulation: Important Skills for Talent Development in Endurance Sports

Pacing has been characterized as a multifaceted goal-directed process of decision making in which athletes need to decide how and when to invest their energy during the race, a process essential for optimal performance. Both physiological and psychological characteristics associated with adequate pacing and performance are known to develop with age. Consequently, the multifaceted skill of pacing might be under construction throughout adolescence, as well. Therefore, the authors propose that the complex skill of pacing is a potential important performance characteristic for talented youth athletes that needs to be developed throughout adolescence. To explore whether pacing is a marker for talent and how talented athletes develop this skill in middle-distance and endurance sports, they aim to bring together literature on pacing and literature on talent development and self-regulation of learning. Subsequently, by applying the cyclical process of self-regulation to pacing, they propose a practical model for the development of performance in endurance sports in youth athletes. Not only is self-regulation essential throughout the process of reaching the long-term goal of athletic excellence, but it also seems crucial for the development of pacing skills within a race and the development of a refined performance template based on previous experiences. Coaches and trainers are advised to incorporate pacing as a performance characteristic in their talent-development programs by stimulating their athletes to reflect, plan, monitor, and evaluate their races on a regular basis to build performance templates and, as such, improve their performance

Development of 1500m Pacing Behavior in Junior Speed Skaters: A Longitudinal Study.

Providing insight in the development of pacing behavior in junior speed skaters and analyse possible differences between elite, sub-elite, and non-elite juniors.1500m season best times (SBT) and corresponding pacing behavior were obtained longitudinally for 104 Dutch male speed skaters at age 13-14(U15), 15-16(U17), and 17-18(U19) years. Based on their U19 SBT, skaters were divided into elite(n=17), sub-elite(n=64), and non-elite(n=23) groups. Pacing behavior was analysed using the 0-300m, 300-700m, 700-1100m and 1100-1500m times, expressed as a percentage of final time. Mixed analyses of variance were used for statistical analyses.With age, pacing behavior generally developed towards a slower 0-300m and 1100-1500m and a faster mid-section relative to final time. While being faster on all sections, the elite were relatively slower on 0-300m (22.1±0.27%) than the sub-elite and non-elite (21.5±0.44%)(p<0.01), but relatively faster on 300-700m (24.6±0.30%) than the non-elite (24.9±0.58%)(p=0.002). On 700-1100m, the elite and sub-elite (26.2±0.25%) were relatively faster than the non-elite (26.5±0.41%)(p=0.008). Differences in the development of pacing behavior were found from U17-U19 with relative 700-1100m times decreasing for the elite and sub-elite (26.2±0.31% to 26.1±0.27%), but increasing for the non-elite (26.3±0.29% to 26.5±0.41%)(p=0.014).Maintaining high speed into 700-1100m, accompanied by a relatively slower start, appears crucial for high performance on the 1500m speed skating. Generally, juniors develop towards this profile, with a more pronounced development towards a relative faster 700-1100m from U17-U19 for elite junior speed skaters. The results of the present study indicate the relevance of pacing behavior for talent development

Pacing behaviour of middle-long distance running & race-walking athletes at the IAAF U18 and U20 World Championship finals.

The current study analysed the pacing behaviour of athletes competing in the middle-long track event finals of the IAAF Under 18 and Under 20 World Championships between 2015 and 2018. Official finishing times, 1000-m split times and positioning data of 116 female and 153 male athletes, competing in the middle-long distance running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000 m) and race walking (5000 m and 10,000 m) events, were gathered. Repeated measures analysis of variance, with 1000-m speed as within-subjects factor and final ranking (medallist, Top 8 or Top 12, rest of the field) as between-subjects factor, was performed to compare the pacing behaviour between athletes. Positioning of the athletes was analysed by Kendall tau-b (Tb) correlation between the intermediate position and final position. Overall, medallists increased their speed throughout a race, with the exception of the 5000 m running event, in which a parabolic pacing behaviour was exhibited. The 1000-m segment in which a significant (P > 0.05) difference in speed was exhibited between differently ranked athletes coincided with a strong (Tb > 0.7) correlation between intermediate and final positioning. These combined results point towards a separation between the athletes during the race, as the Top 8 or Top 12 and the rest of the field are unable to match the speed of the medallists. The distance, discipline, sex, age category and behaviour of competitors all influence the pacing behaviour of young track athletes during international level competition, emphasising the importance and complexity of developing adequate pacing behaviour in track athletes

Pacing in a broader sense: tactics in short track speed skating

Pacing has been studied in time trial sports extensively. However, research is limited in sports with a direct form of competition, such as short track speed skating, where the main goal is to be the first instead of the fastest. Intermediate positions (i.e the ranking of each athlete per lap) may provide a way to analyze pacing strategies in sports where direct opponents play a large role. Further, we want to examine if these strategies are affected by gender or distance (500,1000,1500m). We hypothesize high positive correlations of the intermediate position with the final position during the laps in the final stages of the race in all short track competitions. A positive correlation would indicate that a high intermediate position is related with a high final position, and thus skating in first intermediate position is favourable compared to lower intermediate positions. Method Short Track World Cup season 2012/13 lap times were used to access final and intermediate positions in 500m (N=1764, 415 races), 1000m (N=1564, 365 races), and 1500m (N=1201, 213 races) competitions. Spearman Rho correlations were used to assess relationships between intermediate and finishing positions. Correlations>0.70 were perceived as strong. Finally, the winning% of the first ranked in each lap (i.e. percentage of all first ranked in a certain lap who won their race) were determined. Results In the 500m (4.5 laps of 111,12m), strong correlations were found with the final position during all laps for women. The winning% were high for the first ranked in each intermediate lap (4 laps to go: r=0.72, with increasing correlations towards the finish line; 75% of current leaders won the race). For men this was the case in all laps except the first (3 laps to go: r=0.71 with increasing correlations towards the finish line; 58%). In the 1000m (9 laps) the last three laps for women (3 laps to go: r=0.71; 66%) and last two laps for men (2 laps to go: r=0.82; 71%) showed strong correlations with the final position. In the 1500m (13.5 laps), the last two laps for women (2 laps to go: r=0.80; 62%) and last three laps for men (3 laps to go: r=0.72; 64%) showed strong correlations with the final position. Conclusion The strong positive correlations of intermediate ranking and end placement at the final stages of the race during all events indicate that tactical positioning at the latter phase of the race is a strong determinant of the final position. During the 500m, tactical positing seemed already important in the beginning of the race. In all events, being first ranked in the final stages of the race was related with high (>58-92%) final winning

Growth, maturation, functional capacities and sport-specific skills in 12-13 year-old- basketball players

Aim. The influence of maturity status on body size, functional capacities and basketball-specific skills was evaluated and multivariate relationships between domains of variables were examined in 80 male basketball players 12.0-13.9 years. Methods. Height, body mass and two skinfolds were measured. Stage of pubic hair (PH) was assessed clinically. Functional capacity was assessed with the vertical jump (squat jump, countermovement jump), 2-kg medicine ball throw, hand grip strength, 60-second sit-ups and endurance shuttle run. Performances on four basketball skills were tested: shooting, passing, dribbling and defensive movements. Analysis of covariance with age as the covariate was used to test differences among players by stage of puberty. Associations among body size, adiposity, functional capacities and skills were evaluated with canonical correlation analysis. Results. Maturity status explained a significant portion of variance in body size (F=50.13, P<0.01,eta(2)=057, for height; F=13.47, P<0.01, eta(2)=0.26, for weight). The effect of pubertal status was significant for the jumps and upper limb strength, but not for sit-ups or aerobic endurance. Canonical correlations showed an inverse relationship of height and adiposity with skill tests, and a positive relationship between skills and a combination of abdominal muscular strength (sit-ups) and aerobic endurance. Conclusion. Skill appeared to be independent of pubertal status and the tallest group of basketball players did not attain better scores in basketball-specific skill tests

Self-regulatory skills: Are they helpful in the prevention of overuse injuries in talented tennis players?

Talented athletes use metacognitive skills to improve their performance. Also, it is known that these skills are important for managing one's health. The goal of this study was to identify the relationship between metacognitive skills and overuse injuries in talented tennis players. Metacognitive skills were measured in 73 talented tennis players (45 boys and 28 girls, age 11-14) at the start of the season, using the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale. Overuse injuries were monitored for one season using the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Centre Questionnaire on Health Problems. Ordinal regression indicated that moderate or low selfmonitoring skills (compared to high selfmonitoring) (OR 4.555, CI 1.096-18.927, P = 0.037) and exposure time (OR 1.380, CI 1.106-1.721, P = 0.004) were associated with more time loss overuse injuries. A second analysis showed that this was the case in girls (OR 10.757, CI 1.845-62.714, P = 0.008), but not in boys. Linear regression revealed that higher reflection scores and exposure time predicted overuse severity (F(5,58) = 2.921, P = 0.020, R-2 = 0.201). Possibly, selfmonitoring can help players to prevent themselves from time loss overuse injuries. Coaches should be aware that players can differ in selfmonitoring ability and thus in the ability to prevent overuse injuries. The role of reflection needs more research

Modelling developmental changes in repeated-sprint ability by chronological and skeletal ages in young soccer players

This study investigated the influence of chronological (CA) and skeletal ages (SA), anthropometry, aerobic endurance and lower limb explosive strength on developmental changes in repeated-sprint ability (RSA) in soccer players aged 11-17 years. Participants were annually followed over 5 years, resulting in 366 measurements. Multilevel regression modelling analysed longitudinal data aligned by CA and SA (Model 1 and 2, respectively). After diagnosing for multicollinearity, it was possible to predict RSA with 2-level hierarchical models [Model 1 (CA as Level 2 predictor): Log-Likelihood=1,515.29, p<0.01; Model 2 (SA as Level 2 predictor): Log-Likelihood=1,513.89, p<0.01]. Estimating sum of sprints for young soccer players are given by equations: sum of sprints=84.47 - 1.82 × CA + 0.03 × CA2 - 0.05 × aerobic endurance - 0.10 × lower limb explosive strength -0.09 × fat-free mass + 0.13 × fat mass (Model 1); 73.58 - 0.43 × SA - 0.05 × aerobic endurance - 0.10 × lower limb explosive strength - 0.08 × fat-free mass - 0.45 × training experience + 0.13 × fat mass (Model 2). The models produced performance curves that may be used to estimate individual performance across adolescent years. Finally, the validity of each model was confirmed based on corresponding measurements taken on an independent cross-sectional sampl

Performance Characteristics of Long-Track Speed Skaters: A Literature Review

Speed skating is an intriguing sport to study from different perspectives due to the peculiar way of motion and the multiple determinants for performance. This review aimed to identify what is known on (long-track) speed skating, and which individual characteristics determine speed skating performance. A total of 49 studies were included. Based on a multidimensional performance model, person-related performance characteristics were categorized in anthropometrical, technical, physiological, tactical, and psychological characteristics. Literature was found on anthropometry, technique, physiology, and tactics. However, psychological studies were clearly under-represented. In particular, the role of self-regulation might deserve more attention to further understand mechanisms relevant for optimal performance and for instance pacing. Another remarkable finding was that the technically/biomechanically favourable crouched skating technique (i.e. small knee and trunk angle) leads to a physiological disadvantage: a smaller knee angle may increase the deoxygenation of the working muscles. This is an important underlying aspect for the pacing tactics in speed skating. Elite speed skaters need to find the optimal balance between obtaining a fast start and preventing negative technical adaptations later on in the race by distributing their available energy over the race in an optimal way. More research is required to gain more insight into how this impacts on the processes of fatigue and coordination during speed skating races. This can lead to a better understanding on how elite speed skaters can maintain the optimal technical characteristics throughout the entire race, and how they can adapt their pacing to optimize all identified aspects that determine performance