Mid-mantle deformation inferred from seismic anisotropy

With time, convective processes in the Earth's mantle will tend to align crystals, grains and inclusions. This mantle fabric is detectable seismologically, as it produces an anisotropy in material properties—in particular, a directional dependence in seismic-wave velocity. This alignment is enhanced at the boundaries of the mantle where there are rapid changes in the direction and magnitude of mantle flow, and therefore most observations of anisotropy are confined to the uppermost mantle or lithosphere and the lowermost-mantle analogue of the lithosphere, the D" region. Here we present evidence from shear-wave splitting measurements for mid-mantle anisotropy in the vicinity of the 660-km discontinuity, the boundary between the upper and lower mantle. Deep-focus earthquakes in the Tonga–Kermadec and New Hebrides subduction zones recorded at Australian seismograph stations record some of the largest values of shear-wave splitting hitherto reported. The results suggest that, at least locally, there may exist a mid-mantle boundary layer, which could indicate the impediment of flow between the upper and lower mantle in this region

Redox-freezing and nucleation of diamond via magnetite formation in the Earth’s mantle

Diamonds and their inclusions are unique probes into the deep Earth, tracking the deep carbon cycle to >800 km. Understanding the mechanisms of carbon mobilization and freezing is a prerequisite for quantifying the fluxes of carbon in the deep Earth. Here we show direct evidence for the formation of diamond by redox reactions involving FeNi sulfides. Transmission Kikuchi Diffraction identifies an arrested redox reaction from pyrrhotite to magnetite included in diamond. The magnetite corona shows coherent epitaxy with relict pyrrhotite and diamond, indicating that diamond nucleated on magnetite. Furthermore, structures inherited from h-Fe3O4 define a phase transformation at depths of 320–330 km, the base of the Kaapvaal lithosphere. The oxidation of pyrrhotite to magnetite is an important trigger of diamond precipitation in the upper mantle, explaining the presence of these phases in diamonds

Depth constraints on azimuthal anisotropy in the Great Basin from Rayleigh-wave phase velocity maps

We present fundamental-mode Rayleigh-wave azimuthally anisotropic phase velocity maps obtained for the Great Basin region at periods between 16 s and 102 s. These maps offer the first depth constraints on the origin of the semi-circular shear-wave splitting pattern observed in central Nevada, around a weak azimuthal anisotropy zone. A variety of explanations have been proposed to explain this signal, including an upwelling, toroidal mantle flow around a slab, lithospheric drip, and a megadetachment, but no consensus has been reached. Our phase velocity study helps constrain the three-dimensional anisotropic structure of the upper mantle in this region and contributes to a better understanding of the deformation mechanisms taking place beneath the western United States. The dispersion measurements were made using data from the USArray Transportable Array. At periods of 16 s and 18 s, which mostly sample the crust, we find a region of low anisotropy in central Nevada coinciding with locally reduced phase velocities, and surrounded by a semi-circular pattern of fast seismic directions. Away from central Nevada the fast directions are ∼ N-S in the eastern Great Basin, NW-SE in the Walker Lane region, and they transition from E-W to N-S in the northwestern Great Basin. Our short-period phase velocity maps, combined with recent crustal receiver function results, are consistent with the presence of a semi-circular anisotropy signal in the lithosphere in the vicinity of a locally thick crust. At longer periods (28-102 s), which sample the uppermost mantle, isotropic phase velocities are significantly reduced across the study region, and fast directions are more uniform with an ∼ E-W fast axis. The transition in phase velocities and anisotropy can be attributed to the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary at depths of ∼ 60 km. We interpret the fast seismic directions observed at longer periods in terms of present-day asthenospheric flow-driven deformation, possibly related to a combination of Juan de Fuca slab rollback and eastward-driven mantle flow from the Pacific asthenosphere. Our results also provide context to regional SKS splitting observations. We find that our short-period phase velocity anisotropy can only explain ∼ 30% of the SKS splitting times, despite similar patterns in fast directions. This implies that the origin of the regional shear-wave splitting signal is complex and must also have a significant sublithospheric component. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Unraveling the geometry of the Farallon plate: Synthesis of three-dimensional imaging results from USArray

We compare 12 recent three-dimensional (3D) seismic imaging results that made extensive use of data from the Earthscope Transportable Array (TA). Our goal is to sort out what can be said about the geometry of the Farallon plate. Our main approach is 3D visualization using a kinematic plate motion model as a framework. Comparison of results from all 12 image volumes indicates that the results are most consistent with a single, coherent Farallon slab overridden by North American. The Farallon can be tracked from the trench in the Pacific Northwest to its remnants in the lower mantle under eastern North America. From the trench the lithosphere has a low dip to the volcanic arc. Immediately east of the arc the slab steepens sharply before undergoing a decrease in dip above the 410. km discontinuity. The gently dipping section varies along strike. Under Washington the deflection is minor but to the south the slab flattens to become nearly horizontal beneath southern Idaho. There is a strong agreement that the high velocity anomaly associated with the slab vanishes under eastern Oregon. Scattered wave imaging results, however, suggest the top of the anomaly is continuous. These can be reconciled if one assumes the wavespeed anomaly has been neutralized by processes linked to the Yellowstone system. We find that all results are consistent with a 4D kinematic model of the Mendocino slab window under Nevada and Utah. In the eastern US the larger scale models all show a lower mantle anomaly related to the older history of Farallon subduction. The link between the lower mantle and new results in the U.S. Cordillera lies under the High Plains where the required USArray coverage is not yet complete. Image volumes in a unified format are supplied in an electronic supplement. © 2012 Elsevier B.V

A sharp lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary imaged beneath eastern North America

Plate tectonic theory hinges on the concept of a relatively rigid lithosphere moving over a weaker asthenosphere, yet the nature of the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary remains poorly understood. The gradient in seismic velocity that occurs at this boundary is central to constraining the physical and chemical properties that create differences in mechanical strength between the two layers. For example, if the lithosphere is simply a thermal boundary layer that is more rigid owing to colder temperatures, mantle flow models1, 2 indicate that the velocity gradient at its base would occur over tens of kilometres. In contrast, if the asthenosphere is weak owing to volatile enrichment3, 4, 5, 6 or the presence of partial melt7, the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary could occur over a much smaller depth range. Here we use converted seismic phases in eastern North America to image a very sharp seismic velocity gradient at the base of the lithosphere—a 3–11 per cent drop in shear-wave velocity over a depth range of 11 km or less at 90–110 km depth. Such a strong, sharp boundary cannot be reconciled with a purely thermal gradient, but could be explained by an asthenosphere that contains a few per cent partial melt7 or that is enriched in volatiles relative to the lithosphere3, 4, 5, 6