Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya

Utilisation of water from unimproved water sources coupled with inadequate access to sanitation can adversely affect human health. This study undertaken from November 2014 to March, 2015 sought to assess the household water handling practices and relate them to the prevalent diseases in Baringo Central and South, Kenya. A Household sanitary survey was conducted and questionnaires were administered to 100 household heads within the study area. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that 72% of the households (n = 100) collected water for cooking and drinking from the water pans. Only 34% of the households treated water commonly using boiling (19%), filtration with cloth (2%), chlorine (11%) before using it for drinking. There was a positive correlation between methods used in accessing water from drinking water storage containers and water related diseases prevalent in the study area (p < 0.05). Household drinking water in the study area did not meet the WHO drinking water quality guidelines mainly due to poor handling practices at the household level. There is a need to promote water, sanitation and hygiene campaigns in the study area to prevent water related diseases at the household level

Effect of Corporate Governance on Performance of Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies in Kakamega County

The study on the effect of corporate governance on performance of SACCOs was based on the revelations that some cooperatives are ailing, while others are very vibrant and sustainable. Good corporate governance is now accepted as vital to achieving the Millennium Development Goals and as a pre-condition for sustainable economic growth. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of corporate governance on performance of SACCOs. Corporate governance was operationalized by transparency and accountability, shareholder involvement, policies and guidelines, and rewards and incentives while performance of SACCOs was characterized by growth in share capital/deposits, growth in membership, growth in turnover, and customer satisfaction. The significance of the study was to demonstrate the need for good corporate governance in the co-operative movement. Extensive literature was reviewed to establish the importance of the study, highlighted knowledge gaps and provided benchmark for comparison of the findings. The target population was 33 Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies in Kakamega County. Stratified sampling was applied to get the number of respondents in the study. The respondents were the executive board members, ordinary members, and Chief Executive Officers from the sampled SACCOs. Descriptive and correlational survey designs were both used. Data collection was conducted by use of a questionnaire and document review. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (KR 20), a test of reliability was computed to define the correlation of items contained in the instruments. Piloting of the instruments was through pre-testing of the instruments by carrying out a pilot study in two co-operatives that is Weko and Wesacco. Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The study found that corporate governance had a significant positive effect on performance of SACCOs. Recommendations from this study included the need for all SACCOs to embrace corporate governance since it enhances performance. Measures should also be put in place for SACCOs to embrace right culture, learning, and right organizational structures as they implement their plans. However, the study has recommended further researches on the effect of corporate governance in other types of co-operatives like housing, marketing, and co-operative unions and research that will cover a wider area. Key words: Corporate Governance, Performance, Savings and Credit Co-operatives, Keny

Value chain analysis as a tool for assessing food safety risks in the Nairobi pork food system

In Nairobi, with 3.1 million consumers and 30,000 pigs, the pork system may represents a major source of zoonotic pathogens. Yet, this system and its public health risks have not been described. The study used value chain analysis, a well-known method in economics, to investigate zoonosis and food safety risks practices in the Nairobi pork food system. A cross-sectional study of the Nairobi pork system collected data through 25 focus group discussions and 436 individual interviews with farmers, traders, abattoir owners, large companies’ managers, retailers, government officers and consumers. Data were analysed to identify, describe and quantify the main pork chain profiles, their associated zoonosis and food safety risks practices and their link to governance, the distribution of benefits and barriers to improving the system. Six pork chain profiles were identified with the ‘large integrated company’ profile accounting for 62% of pork marketed through abattoirs. Pigs in slums were channelled directly to consumers and butchers or through less integrated markets. Main zoonosis and food safety risk practices for city pig keepers were: handling and consumption of sick pigs; and swill and scavenging feeding. In less integrated abattoirs these risks were: lack of traceability, cold chain systems and adequate cleaning and sterilising practices and equipment. For the retailers, there was a lack of hygiene linked to poor infrastructure, scarcity of water and cleaning practices. Large companies govern the high end market for pork where barriers to improvements were less. In the lower end poor profit margins and unequal benefit distribution led to issues on around investments in infrastructure, cold chains and human capacity building plus difficulties with meeting feeding and animal health costs. Conclusions This study identified the main zoonoses and food safety risk practices and the people involved in risk taking activities to help future control programmes in the Nairobi pork system. The integration of value chain and analysis of risks practices proved useful and represent the way forward for epidemiologist working in developing countries

Detection of circulating Antigens for Taenia spp. in pigs slaughtered for consumption in Nairobi and surroundings, Kenya

Taenia solium a zoonotic tapeworm, responsible for neurocysticercosis in humans is a major public health threat, being a leading cause of acquired epilepsy in endemic regions. Eastern and southern African nations have experienced a recent rapid growth in pig production, including small-scale, free-range systems, with an accompanying increased risk of T. solium transmission. Seven hundred blood samples were collected from randomly selected pigs presented for slaughter at one of the largest porcine abattoir supplying unprocessed pork to Nairobi city and its surroundings. The samples were tested using an antigen ELISA to determine the prevalence of infection with Taenia spp

Multiple-scattering effects on incoherent neutron scattering in glasses and viscous liquids

Incoherent neutron scattering experiments are simulated for simple dynamic models: a glass (with a smooth distribution of harmonic vibrations) and a viscous liquid (described by schematic mode-coupling equations). In most situations multiple scattering has little influence upon spectral distributions, but it completely distorts the wavenumber-dependent amplitudes. This explains an anomaly observed in recent experiments

The sero-epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) across livestock species and herding contexts in Laikipia County, Kenya

Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Query fever (Q fever), is among the most highly infectious zoonotic pathogens transmitted among livestock, with chronic effects challenging to veterinary and medical detection and care systems. Transmission among domestic livestock species can vary regionally due to herd management practices that determine which livestock species are raised, whether or not livestock are in contact with wildlife, and the susceptibility of these livestock to infection. To explore how different livestock management practices are associated with the risk of infection in multispecies environments, we carried out a comparative study of three types of herd management systems in the central Kenyan county of Laikipia: agro‐commercial, mixed conservancy/commercial, and smallholder ranches. We tested C. burnetii antibody seroprevalence in four common livestock species. Across all management types, the highest seroprevalence was in camels (20%), followed by goats (18%), sheep (13%), and cattle (6%). We observed a lower odds of testing seropositive for young compared to adult animals (adjusted OR = 0.44 [95% CI 0.24, 0.76]), and for males compared to females (adjusted OR = 0.52 [95% CI 0.33, 0.80]). Animals from mixed conservancy/commercial and smallholder operations had a higher odds of testing seropositive compared to animals from agro‐commercial ranches (adjusted OR = 5.17 [95% CI 2.71, 10.44] and adjusted OR = 2.21 [95% CI 1.17, 4.43] respectively). These data suggest that herd management practices might affect the transmission dynamics of C. burnetiiin arid African ecosystems like those seen in Kenya where several transmission modes are possible, risk of drought has promoted new livestock species such as camels, and multiple wildlife species may co‐occur with livestock on the landscape. Further longitudinal studies are needed to disentangle the mechanisms underlying these patterns, and further explore transmission patterns between wildlife, domestic animal, and human populations

Epidemiology of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli carriage in sympatric humans and livestock in a rapidly urbanizing city

There are substantial limitations in understanding of the distribution of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in humans and livestock in developing countries. This papers present the results of an epidemiological study examining patterns of AMR in Escherichia coli isolates circulating in sympatric human (n = 321) and livestock (n = 633) samples from 99 households across Nairobi, Kenya. E. coli isolates were tested for susceptibility to 13 antimicrobial drugs representing nine antibiotic classes. High rates of AMR were detected, with 47.6% and 21.1% of isolates displaying resistance to three or more and five or more antibiotic classes, respectively. Human isolates showed higher levels of resistance to sulfonamides, trimethoprim, aminoglycosides and penicillins compared with livestock (P0.05). These findings revealed a high prevalence of AMR E. coli circulating in healthy humans and livestock in Nairobi, with no evidence to suggest that keeping livestock, when treated as a single risk factor, contributed significantly to the burden of AMR in humans, although the presence of livestock waste was significant. These results provide an understanding of the broader epidemiology of AMR in complex and interconnected urban environments

Are Food Animals Responsible for Transfer of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli or Their Resistance Determinants to Human Populations?:A Systematic Review

The role of farm animals in the emergence and dissemination of both AMR bacteria and their resistance determinants to humans is poorly understood and controversial. Here, we systematically reviewed the current evidence that food animals are responsible for transfer of AMR to humans. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE for literature published between 1940 and 2016. Our results show that eight studies (18%) suggested evidence of transmission of AMR from food animals to humans, 25 studies (56%) suggested transmission between animals and humans with no direction specified and 12 studies (26%) did not support transmission. Quality of evidence was variable among the included studies; one study (2%) used high resolution typing tools, 36 (80%) used intermediate resolution typing tools, six (13%) relied on low resolution typing tools, and two (5%) based conclusions on co-occurrence of resistance. While some studies suggested to provide evidence that transmission of AMR from food animals to humans may occur, robust conclusions on the directionality of transmission cannot be drawn due to limitations in study methodologies. Our findings highlight the need to combine high resolution genomic data analysis with systematically collected epidemiological evidence to reconstruct patterns of AMR transmission between food animals and humans