The call for strengthening the monitoring of Private pharmacies and drugstores in Tanzania

Developing countries have recorded an increase of private sector operations in running the major economic activities. Tanzania, as other developing countries, recognized a significant role played by private sector in building its economy, including the provision of social services. Over the past four decades, the country recorded rampant growth of private pharmacies and drugstores serving the community. However, the monitoring of services offered in private pharmacies and drugstores has been ineffective, resulting to low quality of services provided. This letter highlights the importance of strengthening the monitoring of services offered by private pharmacies and drugstores

Woody vegetation stocking, composition and diversity in Miombo Woodlands in Tanzania: A case study of Mgori forest reserve in Singida District

Participatory forest management (PFM) model is aimed at improving both forest resources conservation and livelihoods of local communities. In Tanzania, PFM is widely spread in forest reserves bearing the names of joint forest management, co forest management and community based forest management. However, despite the wide spread, less so far has been done to assess its contribution to conservation of the forest resources and livelihoods of local communities. The study, however, majored on assessment of forest resources by describing woody stocking, and species composition and diversity at Mgori Forest Reserve, in Tanzania. Mgori forest reserve (MFR) is one of the reserves in Tanzania, which are under the model. MFR is within miombo woodlands of Tanzania allocated along the western side of the country. Inventory data were collected from four village forest reserves, which are part of MFR. Atotal of 136 plots of the size 20 x 50 m (0.1ha) were laid in different clusters. The study enumerated a total number of 79 tree/shrub species. DBH distribution followed an inverse ‘J’ shape. Stem density in the study ranged between 494 and 885 N ha-1, while basal area and woody volumedistribution followed a ‘J’ shape. The basal area varied from 9.65 to 18.50 m2 ha-1, while the woody volume was averaged to 65.99 m3 ha-1 with a range of 54.49 to 104.47 m3 ha-1. The most dominant tree species in the study were Brachistigia spiciformis and Jubernadia globifolia. Importantvalue index of tree species ranged between 4.29 and 10.00, while Shannon Weiner index was between 2.54 and 3.04. Index of dominance in this study was between 0.03 and 0.11, while species diversity index ranged from 38.46 to 89.36 and species richness and evenness ranged between 9.65 and 21.04 and 1.55 and 1.81 respectively. The study concludes that woody stocking parameters as well as tree/shrub species composition and diversity indices are normal and similar to any other reserved forests in miombo woodlands.Key words: miombo woodland, stem density, basal area, woody volume, species composition, diversity, participatory forest management, village forest reserve

The call for action on the monitoring of the COVID-19 prevention and control measures and the routine release of data in Tanzania

World Health Organization (WHO) mandates all its country members to effectively monitor the entire nationally implemented Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) related preventive and control (clinical management) measures and edict timely release of data to the entire global community. United Republic of Tanzania, which is a country member of WHO, has recently precluded to monitor and officially release the necessary epidemiological data both to its own citizens and internationally via press release. The abrupt impediment of monitoring and release of data is assumed to be driven by the intention to deliberately minimize the panic in the community. This letter underscores the importance of monitoring and timely release of national COVID-19 data and also provides key recommendations to address ineffective national COVID-19 surveillance systems of Tanzania

Factors affecting the anthelmintic efficacy of cysteine proteinases against GI nematodes and their formulation for use in ruminants

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes are important helminth pathogens responsible for severe losses to livestock industries and human health throughout the world. Control of these infections relies primarily on chemotherapy; however there is rapid development of resistance to all available classes of anthelmintic drugs, and therefore new alternative treatments are urgently required. Plant cysteine proteinases (CPs) from papaya latex, pineapple fruit and stem extracts have been demonstrated to be effective against GI nematodes of rodents, chickens, pigs and sheep. The current study extended evaluation of different plant extracts and the factors affecting the efficacy of papaya latex supernatant (PLS) as an anthelmintic against GI nematodes in a mouse model system and formulation and delivery for use in ruminants. The study started with purification and concentration of CPs in PLS using different methods to determine which of them would provide high yield of CPs. It was found that concentration by dialysis provided a high yield of active enzyme in PLS. Storage of PLS at -200C and -800C retained more active enzymes for prolonged period of time than at ambient temperature and 4oC. Motility assay conditions showed to have no influence on enzyme activity. While the in vitro experiment results showed significant detrimental effect of pineapple fruit extract, stem bromelain and little effect of kiwi fruit extract against Heligmosomoides bakeri motility. In vivo experiments showed less efficacy of these enzymes than expected when compared with PLS. The first factor to be assessed in this study was the effect of fasting on the anthelmintic efficacy of PLS. The results showed that PLS was equally effective in reducing worm burdens whether mice were fasted before treatment or not, and by avoiding fasting the side effects of treatment were minimized. Comparison of efficacy in a range of mouse strains indicated that efficacy varied between mice of different genotype. At the dose used, the treatment was most effective in C3H mice ranging from 90.5% to 99.3% in reducing worm burdens and less effective in NIHS, CD1 and BALB/c strains (7.9%, 36.0% and 40.5% reduction respectively). However, host sex and body size were shown not to have any influence on the anthelmintic efficacy of PLS. Since CPs are particularly sensitive to pH, variation between mouse strains in gut pH was investigated but no significant differences in pH were found along the GI tract of the poor (BALB/c) and high responder mice (C3H) to PLS treatment and concurrent administration of the antacid cimetidine also did not improve efficacy. The study also explored the potential of formulation and delivery of PLS as an anthelmintic drug for ruminants. In vitro studies involving both immediate and slow release dosage formulations simulating the physiological conditions (pH, temperature and peristaltic movement) in the GI tract of the animal were conducted. In the slow release experiments, two hydrophilic matrices were tested, the xanthan gum and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) (both Methocel-LVCR and Methocel-CR). Methocel-CR provided better slow release results compared to the others. In the immediate release experiments 3 disintegrants (Primojel, L-HPC and Ac-Di-sol) were investigated and Ac-Di-Sol® was found to produce the faster immediate drug release rate. Preliminary in vitro studies also showed that PLS was highly effective against equine GI nematodes. Finally the empirical findings in this study provide useful information for improvement of formulation and delivery of these naturally occurring plant-derived enzymes for treatment of intestinal worm infections in humans and livestock, while achieving maximum efficacy and minimal side-effects

Consumption Of Indigenous Fruits In Uluguru North And Ruvu North Forest Reserves, Tanzania

The study was conducted between 1998 and 2000 to compare the number, types and consumption of indigenous fruit species by sex and age classes in the Uluguru North Forest Reserve (UNFR) and Ruvu North Forest Reserve (RNFR). Data were collected through household interviews and forest inventory. A total of 120 households from six villages (3 bordering the RNFR and 3 near the RNFR) were randomly selected for interviews. Plots with the size of 0.1 ha were established along the transects after every 400m during forest inventory for the purpose of identifying fruit plants. A total of 25 indigenous fruit species were identified in the study areas. 20 and 16 species were identified in the UNFR and the RNFR respectively. 9 species were only found in UNFR while 5 were identified in RNFR. 11 species were identified in both study areas. Responses on consumption by age showed that, in both sites, children consumed more indigenous fruits than any other age group followed by adult women. The consumption of these fruits in UNFR was 64% (children), 47% (adult women) and 25% (adult men) while in RNFR consumption was 46% (children), 39% (adult women) and 23% (adult men). Seasonality and availability of exotic species had effect on consumption of indigenous fruits. The consumption of indigenous fruits appeared to be much higher when the supply of exotic fruits was low and vice versa. TJFNC Vol. 75 2004: pp. 65-7

Tree species diversity under pastoral and farming systems in Kilosa District, Tanzania

Loss of tree diversity through improper land use practices such as overgrazing and poor farming practices in tropical areas and other natural ecosystems is one of today's most worrying environmental problems. This study was conducted to assess the impact of farming and pastoralism on tree species diversity in two forests each owned and managed by pastoral and farming communities in Kilosa District. Household survey solicited information on perceptions of local communities on drivers that influenced tree stocking and diversity of their forests. A forest inventory was conducted involving twenty circular in each system plots laid along two transects. In each plot, trees and shrubs with DBH > 5 cm were measured for DBH and height. A total of 48 different species were recorded out of which 75%were tree species and 25% shrubs species. The forest under pastoral system had a Shannon - Wiener Index (H’) of 3.13 as opposed to farming system with an index of 2.05. Average stocking for the forest under pastoral system was 235 stem ha-1, whereas that of farming system was 209 stem ha-1. Basal areas of 13m2ha-1 and 6m2 ha-l were recorded for forests under pastoral and farming systems respectively. Standing volume showed the same tendency where 216m3ha-1 was recorded from the forest under pastoral system as opposed to 100.12 m3ha-1 from the other forest. The high loss of species diversity and stocks particularly in the forest under farming system were attributed to anthropogenic disturbances including cutting trees for farm expansion, charcoal making and house construction. Although the assessment on the community perception on the loss of tree diversity in the area showed conflicting interests between the two societies each blaming activities of each community as major causes of forest degradation. This calls for more enforcement of rules and regulations and tree planting in degraded areas predominantly in the farming communities. The study further revealed that the existing tensions over land resource ownership between the two communities of farmers and pastoralists may be contributing factors of unsustainable use of tree species and other forest resources. It is recommended that interventions should be done to settle conflicts over land resource ownership and management between the two villages as well control proliferation and dominance of Acacia nilotica as a way to improve pasture and improve species diversity in the area. Key words: Tree stocking - rules and regulations - anthropogenic disturbance

Loan delinquency and repayment performance for Mchikichini and TADA SACCOS found at Ilala municipal Dar es Salaam

The main objective of this study is to assess loan Delinquency and the factors that influence non performing the repayment of SACCOS loan. The study assesses the factors causing non repayment of loan to SACCOS members; examine the level of loan repayment performance of their members. Also to assess whether the aspect used by SACCOS to force borrowers repaying the loan on time is suitable. A total of 120 questionnaires were administered to members of Mchikichini and TADA traders SACCOS at Ilala SACCOS.A total of 66 respondents were successfully interviewed or return the questionnaires. Analysis of data revealed that there is a problem in loan repayment performance to SACCOS members. Factors identified for the poor loan repayment was as follows: The diversion of loan funds by borrowers, non supervision of loan, on effective loan utilization and the time for repayment period was not enough. It was also found that traders SACCOS annual interest rate were moderate. Nevertheless the mechanism used to assist in loan utilization and repayment is not effective enough. The study recommended that traders SACCOS leaders should make sure that members use loan for intended purpose through having monthly routine of visiting their businesses. SACCOS leaders should educate their members on selecting profitable business which will provide them a lot of profit. Higher profit will enable them to overcome other need of money. Leaders should advise their members to avoid credit sales Also loan repayment time should be reasonable and in accordance to the amount of loan received and Management staff should be professional and competent to their duties

Factors affecting the anthelmintic efficacy of cysteine proteinases against GI nematodes and their formulation for use in ruminants

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes are important helminth pathogens responsible for severe losses to livestock industries and human health throughout the world. Control of these infections relies primarily on chemotherapy; however there is rapid development of resistance to all available classes of anthelmintic drugs, and therefore new alternative treatments are urgently required. Plant cysteine proteinases (CPs) from papaya latex, pineapple fruit and stem extracts have been demonstrated to be effective against GI nematodes of rodents, chickens, pigs and sheep. The current study extended evaluation of different plant extracts and the factors affecting the efficacy of papaya latex supernatant (PLS) as an anthelmintic against GI nematodes in a mouse model system and formulation and delivery for use in ruminants. The study started with purification and concentration of CPs in PLS using different methods to determine which of them would provide high yield of CPs. It was found that concentration by dialysis provided a high yield of active enzyme in PLS. Storage of PLS at -200C and -800C retained more active enzymes for prolonged period of time than at ambient temperature and 4oC. Motility assay conditions showed to have no influence on enzyme activity. While the in vitro experiment results showed significant detrimental effect of pineapple fruit extract, stem bromelain and little effect of kiwi fruit extract against Heligmosomoides bakeri motility. In vivo experiments showed less efficacy of these enzymes than expected when compared with PLS. The first factor to be assessed in this study was the effect of fasting on the anthelmintic efficacy of PLS. The results showed that PLS was equally effective in reducing worm burdens whether mice were fasted before treatment or not, and by avoiding fasting the side effects of treatment were minimized. Comparison of efficacy in a range of mouse strains indicated that efficacy varied between mice of different genotype. At the dose used, the treatment was most effective in C3H mice ranging from 90.5% to 99.3% in reducing worm burdens and less effective in NIHS, CD1 and BALB/c strains (7.9%, 36.0% and 40.5% reduction respectively). However, host sex and body size were shown not to have any influence on the anthelmintic efficacy of PLS. Since CPs are particularly sensitive to pH, variation between mouse strains in gut pH was investigated but no significant differences in pH were found along the GI tract of the poor (BALB/c) and high responder mice (C3H) to PLS treatment and concurrent administration of the antacid cimetidine also did not improve efficacy. The study also explored the potential of formulation and delivery of PLS as an anthelmintic drug for ruminants. In vitro studies involving both immediate and slow release dosage formulations simulating the physiological conditions (pH, temperature and peristaltic movement) in the GI tract of the animal were conducted. In the slow release experiments, two hydrophilic matrices were tested, the xanthan gum and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) (both Methocel-LVCR and Methocel-CR). Methocel-CR provided better slow release results compared to the others. In the immediate release experiments 3 disintegrants (Primojel, L-HPC and Ac-Di-sol) were investigated and Ac-Di-Sol® was found to produce the faster immediate drug release rate. Preliminary in vitro studies also showed that PLS was highly effective against equine GI nematodes. Finally the empirical findings in this study provide useful information for improvement of formulation and delivery of these naturally occurring plant-derived enzymes for treatment of intestinal worm infections in humans and livestock, while achieving maximum efficacy and minimal side-effects

Household Tree Planting In Kilosa District, Tanzania

The objective of this study was to assess household tree planting efforts and to investigate current constraints to afforestation in Kilosa District, Tanzania. The results of the study showed that 77 % of farmers in the district have planted trees in their farms, whether by themselves or previous farm owners. The average total number of planted trees was estimated to be 40 + 7 (SE) trees per household. Men headed household tended to have more planted trees [44 + 9 (SE)] than female headed households [31 + 11 (SE)]. Middle age households had planted more trees [49 + 14 (SE)] than younger [29 + 13 (SE)] and elder households [33 + 8 (SE)]. Tree planting appeared to be positively influenced by farm size and education. Fruit trees dominated in the home gardens (53 %) while non-fruits trees were more abundant far away from homestead. An investigation of constraints to tree planting and tending revealed that lack of seedlings (32 % of respondents), shortage of designated planting sites (24 %) and uncertainty over land ownership appeared to be the most important obstacles to tree planting in the district. It was surprising that land shortage became as the second leading constraint to tree planting despite the apparent low density of human population (32 people per km2 in 2000). The study concludes by recommending that in order to promote tree planting in the country\'s rural areas, farmers have to be assisted in production of seedlings. Other necessary prerequisites are effective land-use planning and clear secured tenure over land. TJFNC Vol. 75 2004: pp. 99-10

The impact of community-based forest management and joint forest management on the forest resource base and local people’s livelihoods: Case studies from Tanzania

In recent years, there has been a move in eastern and southern African countries from centralised and state-driven management of natural resources towards decentralised and people-centred based regimes. In Tanzania, the inception of the 1998 national forest policy has led to institutionalisation of community-based forest management (CBFM) and joint forest management (JFM). A number of years later, it is worth assessing the impact of this policy on the resource base and people’s livelihoods. This paper uses two case studies of forest reserves under participatory forest management to explore this issue. Secondary data was gathered from various studies conducted in those two forest reserves. In addition to the analysis carried out by the various authors, further analysis involving content and structural analysis and synthesis of documented information was done. The results of the study revealed that CBFM at Duru-Haitemba had a positive impact on the resource base and people’s livelihoods – the forest is healthier than before and people are satisfied with the products they collect from the forests. On the other hand, the impact of JFM at Kwizu Forest Reserve has not yet produced desirable results since illegal activities are still rampant and, apparently, forest exploitation has increased instead of decreasing. The reasons behind the success at Duru-Haitemba and relative failure at Kwizu are varied, but are most probably linked to ownership of resources and law enforcement. Clear definition of rights, returns and responsibilities and adequate incentives are important for sustainability of people-centred management of natural resources.Center for Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe Institute for Poverty Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS