Herstellermarke vs. Handelsmarke

Im Mittelpunkt des vorliegenden Arbeitspapier steht die Gegenüberstellung von Herstellermarken und Handelsmarken. Dazu wird zunächst der Begriff der Marke definiert. Wichtige Funktionen, die sie inne hat, werden beschrieben und ihre Erfolgsprinzipien erläutert, bevor näher auf die Hersteller- und Handelsmarken eingegangen wird. Nach einer Definition dieser Begriffe folgt eine Abgrenzung zwischen Hersteller- und Handelsmarke. Mit der Betrachtung der Vor- und Nachteile der Handelsmarke gegenüber der Herstellermarke schließt die Grundlagenlegung ab. Im dritten Kapitel werden die Hersteller- und Handelsmarken klassifiziert, es werden verschiedene Markentypen erläutert und mit anschaulichen Beispielen unterlegt. Näher betrachtet werden dabei die Individual- oder Einzelmarke, Warengruppen- oder Segmentmarke, Sortiments- und Hausmarke, Hersteller-Dachmarke sowie die Einzelhändlermarke. Abschließend erfolgt eine Erläuterung der markenstrategischen Kombinationsmöglichkeiten der unterschiedlichen Markentypen. Das vierte Kapitel befasst sich mit der Herstellermarke - mit ihrer Entstehung, Entwicklung, möglichen Positionierung und Einsatz durch den Einzelhandel. Ausführlicher betrachtet werden dabei der klassische Markenartikel, die Luxusmarke und der Markenartikel als Zweit- bzw. Drittmarke. Im fünften Kapitel wird die Handelsmarke unter den Gesichtspunkten ihrer Funktionen, Formen, Entstehung sowie der Ziele und Strategien, die mit ihr verfolgt werden können, betrachtet. Abschließend werden auch hier mögliche Positionierungen und Einsatzmöglichkeiten aufgezeigt, dazu gehören, neben der klassischen Handelsmarke, die Gattungs- und Premiummarke. Ein Fazit schließt dieses Arbeitspapier ab. --

Population genetics of native shellfish aquaculture species and potential genetic risks of cultivation

Native shellfish aquaculture has many benefits, but interbreeding of hatchery and wild populations may pose genetic risks to wild populations. The type and magnitude of these risks depends in part on the genetic population structure of native shellfish species. Early genetic studies on marine shellfish provided little evidence for such structure. However, recent population genetic studies provide higher resolution, make use of both neutral and non-neutral molecular markers, and suggest some marine shellfish can exhibit population structure and even local adaptation. Here, we present preliminary results on genetic differentiation among populations of Crassadoma gigantea (the purple-hinged rock scallop) and Parastichopus californicus (the giant California sea cucumber), two native species that are currently being developed for aquaculture production in Puget Sound. Data for both species demonstrate high levels of genetic diversity and indications for population structuring by geography. Additionally, data for P. californicus suggest a potential cryptic species. Results will be used in a genetic risk model to quantify risk under multiple management scenarios, which will provide decision support to resource managers and other stakeholders. Our study shows the importance of population structure for genetic risk assessment and the power of combining empirical data, computer modeling and end-user input

The role of reproductive timing as a driver of genetic differentiation in populations of Pacific herring

There is growing recognition that maintaining diversity in life history traits contributes to the sustainable management of wild populations. One important life history characteristic is reproductive phenology, and it has been shown that differences in the timing of reproduction can act as a barrier to gene flow between populations. If the difference in reproductive timing determines the level of connectivity, one would expect that genetic differentiation between populations would increase as a function of difference in reproductive date. This pattern, known as “isolation by time” (IBT), has been observed in wild populations of salmonids containing early and late runs. Pacific herring in the Salish Sea also exhibit a wide diversity of spawn times; some populations start reproducing as early as January and reproductive activity in the region continues through May. Here, we test whether these temporal differences in reproduction influence the genetic population structure of herring. We collected adult herring from seven different locations in the Salish Sea during active spawning events (N = 48 per site). Samples were sequenced using a restriction site-associated (RAD) approach and approximately 3,000 polymorphic loci were genotyped in each sample. We found a positive correlation between genetic differentiation and difference in spawn date, with evidence of migration between populations with similar spawn timing. Several loci exhibited exceptionally steep gradients in allele frequencies, including one locus linked to the photoperiodic regulation of reproduction. Our discovery of IBT in Pacific herring support the adaptive significance of spawn timing and underscore the importance of conserving spawning time diversity in Puget Sound herring

High connectivity among brown rockfish (Sebastes auriculatus) populations in Puget Sound: evidence from genetic parental identification, otolith microchemistry and oceanographic models

Empirical data on recruitment and dispersal patterns of marine species can provide a scientific basis for conserving biodiversity and improving fisheries via marine reserves. We examined patterns of larval dispersal in brown rockfish (Sebastes auriculatus) using genetic markers (microsatellites). Tissue samples from 1,837 fish were collected in 2004 to 2009 from 18 sites in the Puget Sound, Washington. Genetic parentage analysis using maximum-likelihood and exclusion approaches identified seven offspring that assigned to a parent, with one offspring assigned to both parents. All offspring recruited and settled at the main study site, Point Heyer; four offspring originated from parents resident at Point Heyer and three from other locations 8 km to 20 km away. Kinship and population genetic structure analyses provided little evidence to reject the null hypothesis of panmixia, suggesting that recruitment to Point Heyer is largely random and that brown rockfish may be highly connected via dispersal in the south Puget Sound. In contrast to previous rockfish studies, there was no evidence for high variance in reproductive success from comparisons of heterozygosity and relatedness among samples of adults and Point Heyer recruits. These results indicate that random recruitment and high levels of gene flow are the predominant processes shaping patterns of brown rockfish larval dispersal in Puget Sound

UV Laser-Induced, Time-Resolved Transcriptome Responses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We determined the effect on gene transcription of laser-mediated, long-wavelength UV-irradiation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by RNAseq analysis at times T15, T30, and T60 min after recovery in growth medium. Laser-irradiated cells were viable, and the transcriptional response was transient, with over 400 genes differentially expressed at T15 or T30, returning to basal level transcription by T60. Identification of transcripts exhibiting enhanced differential expression that were unique to UV laser-irradiation were identified by imposing a stringent significance cut-off (P \u3c 0.05, log2 difference \u3e2) then filtering out genes known as environmental stress response (ESR) genes. Using these rigorous criteria, 56 genes were differentially expressed at T15; at T30 differential expression was observed for 57 genes, some of which persisted from T15. Among the highly up-regulated genes were those supporting amino acid metabolic processes sulfur amino acids, methionine, aspartate, cysteine, serine), sulfur regulation (hydrogen sulfite metabolic processes, sulfate assimilation, sulfate reduction), proteasome components, amino acid transporters, and the iron regulon. At T30, the expression profile shifted to expression of transcripts related to catabolic processes (oxidoreductase activity, peptidase activity). Transcripts common to both T15 and T30 suggested an up-regulation of catabolic events, including UV damage response genes, and protein catabolism via proteasome and peptidase activity. Specific genes encoding tRNAs were among the down-regulated genes adding to the suggestion that control of protein biosynthesis was a major response to long-wave UV laser irradiation. These transcriptional responses highlight the remarkable ability of the yeast cell to respond to a UV-induced environmental insult

An evaluation of the morphological and genetic diversity of Eurydice occurring on South African sandy beaches

This study evaluated the diversity of the genus Eurydice on sandy beaches in South Africa by analysis of morphological as well as genetic data. Type specimens of the three Eurydice species currently known from South Africa, E. longicornis, E. kensleyi and E. barnardi were obtained from the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin and the Iziko Museum in Cape Town, South Africa. These specimens were studied in order to become familiar with their morphology. Eurydice individuals obtained from 30 sites spanning the South African coast, from Port Nolloth on the north-west coast to Bhanga Nek on the north-east coast were then examined. The two species E. kensleyi and E. barnardi, as well as four new morphospecies (A, B, C and D) were discriminated from these individuals by suites of morphological character types. Morphospecies A, B, C and D were therefore delimited according to the Phenetic Species Concept. None of the Eurydice individuals examined exhibited the same suite of characters as E. longicornis. Molecular sequences of two mitochondrial markers, cytochrome c oxidase 1 and 16S rRNA were analysed using both distance- and monophyly based methods. Uncorrected p-distances, a Minimum Spanning Haplotype Network and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic trees were investigated to determine genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships in the six Eurydice morphospecies. Results from the genetic analysis made it possible to delimit morphospecies A B, C and D as phylospecies A, B, C and D according to the Phylogenetic Species Concept, thereby validating the species status of four new Eurydice species, provisionally called Eurydice A, Eurydice B, Eurydice C and Eurydice D. This increases the total number of Eurydice species from South Africa to seven, of which six form part of the macrofauna of sandy beaches. The outcomes of this study represent an important step in the resolution of the taxonomy of the genus Eurydice in South Africa and enhance current knowledge of the biodiversity of sandy beach macrofauna, thus facilitating better-informed decisions on conservation policies and management to the benefit of conservation of biodiversity on sandy beaches in South Africa

High Potential for Using DNA from Ancient Herring Bones to Inform Modern Fisheries Management and Conservation

Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) are an abundant and important component of the coastal ecosystems for the west coast of North America. Current Canadian federal herring management assumes five regional herring populations in British Columbia with a high degree of exchange between units, and few distinct local populations within them. Indigenous traditional knowledge and historic sources, however, suggest that locally adapted, distinct regional herring populations may have been more prevalent in the past. Within the last century, the combined effects of commercial fishing and other anthropogenic factors have resulted in severe declines of herring populations, with contemporary populations potentially reflecting only the remnants of a previously more abundant and genetically diverse metapopulation. Through the analysis of 85 archaeological herring bones, this study attempted to reconstruct the genetic diversity and population structure of ancient herring populations using three different marker systems (mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), microsatellites and SNPs). A high success rate (91%) of DNA recovery was obtained from the extremely small herring bone samples (often <10 mg). The ancient herring mtDNA revealed high haplotype diversity comparable to modern populations, although population discrimination was not possible due to the limited power of the mtDNA marker. Ancient microsatellite diversity was also similar to modern samples, but the data quality was compromised by large allele drop-out and stuttering. In contrast, SNPs were found to have low error rates with no evidence for deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, and simulations indicated high power to detect genetic differentiation if loci under selection are used. This study demonstrates that SNPs may be the most effective and feasible approach to survey genetic population structure in ancient remains, and further efforts should be made to screen for high differentiation markers.This study provides the much needed foundation for wider scale studies on temporal genetic variation in herring, with important implications for herring fisheries management, Aboriginal title rights and herring conservation

Inferring genetic connectivity in real populations, exemplified by coastal and oceanic atlantic cod

Genetic data are commonly used to estimate connectivity between putative populations, but translating them to demographic dispersal rates is complicated. Theoretical equations that infer a migration rate based on the genetic estimator FST, such as Wright’s equation, FST ≈ 1/(4Nem + 1), make assumptions that do not apply to most real populations. How complexities inherent to real populations affect migration was exemplified by Atlantic cod in the North Sea and Skagerrak and was examined within an age-structured model that incorporated genetic markers. Migration was determined under various scenarios by varying the number of simulated migrants until the mean simulated level of genetic differentiation matched a fixed level of genetic differentiation equal to empirical estimates. Parameters that decreased the Ne/Nt ratio (where Ne is the effective and Nt is the total population size), such as high fishing mortality and high fishing gear selectivity, increased the number of migrants required to achieve empirical levels of genetic differentiation. Higher maturity-at-age and lower selectivity increased Ne/Nt and decreased migration when genetic differentiation was fixed. Changes in natural mortality, fishing gear selectivity, and maturity-at-age within expected limits had a moderate effect on migration when genetic differentiation was held constant. Changes in population size had the greatest effect on the number of migrants to achieve fixed levels of FST, particularly when genetic differentiation was low, FST ≈ 10−3. Highly variable migration patterns, compared with constant migration, resulted in higher variance in genetic differentiation and higher extreme values. Results are compared with and provide insight into the use of theoretical equations to estimate migration among real populations.publishedVersio