On the nature, occurance and origin of cold low salinity water along the edge of the Gulf Stream

In the left margin of the Gulf Stream, looking in the direction of flow, a narrow discontinuous band of relatively cold water is often found. This haa been attributed to upwelling from the colder depths of the ocean, but recent investigations throw doubt on this explanation, since this water, which forms a thin layer close to the surface, may have a lower salinity than any water in the depths. Evidence is given that the only cold low salinity source is the so-called Shelf water, which is found in a broad band between· the shore and a boundary off the Continental Shelf...

Badness, madness and the brain - the late 19th-century controversy on immoral persons and their malfunctioning brains

<p>In the second half of the 19th-century, a group of psychiatric experts discussed the relation between brain malfunction and moral misconduct. In the ensuing debates, scientific discourses on immorality merged with those on insanity and the brain. This yielded a specific definition of what it means to be immoral: immoral and insane due to a disordered brain. In this context, diverse neurobiological explanations for immoral mind and behavior existed at the time. This article elucidates these different brain-based explanations via five historical cases of immoral persons. In addition, the article analyses the associated controversies in the context of the period's psychiatric thinking. The rendering of the immoral person as brain-disordered is scrutinized in terms of changes in moral agency. Furthermore, a present immoral person is discussed to highlight commonalities and differences in past and present reasoning.</p>