Social policy and international interventions in South East Europe: conclusions

This book has brought together three fields of study; that concerned with the role of international actors and their influence on national polices; changes taking place to social policies in the context of globalisation, transnationalism and Europeanisation; and the political transformations taking place in South Eastern Europe. It has reported the results of empirical investigations into recent changes in social policy in the region and the ways in which transnational actors are influencing these changes. We divide this concluding chapter into three parts. The first part summarises the actual developments in social policy in the countries of the region and the several and diverse ways in which international actors have, to varying degrees, been influential. We then draw some analytical conclusions arguing how the case studies lead to changes in the ways social scientists should make sense of: the role of international actors engaged in transnational policy making including that of the EU; the role and nature of states in this “multi-level and multi-actor“ process; and the prospects for social policy and the diversity of welfare regimes. Finally we make suggestions about the kind of research that is needed to advance understanding in these inter-related areas

Innate Immunity in Human Embryonic Stem Cells: Comparison with Adult Human Endothelial Cells

Treatment of human disease with human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived cells is now close to reality, but little is known of their responses to physiological and pathological insult. The ability of cells to respond via activation of Toll like receptors (TLR) is critical in innate immune sensing in most tissues, but also extends to more general danger sensing, e.g. of oxidative stress, in cardiomyocytes. We used biomarker release and gene-array analysis to compare responses in hESC before and after differentiation, and to those in primary human endothelial cells. The presence of cardiomyocytes and endothelial cells was confirmed in differentiated cultures by immunostaining, FACS-sorting and, for cardiomyocytes, beating activity. Undifferentiated hESC did not respond with CXCL8 release to Gram positive or Gram negative bacteria, or a range of PAMPs (pathogen associated molecular patterns) for TLRs 1-9 (apart from flagellin, an activator of TLR5). Surprisingly, lack of TLR-dependent responses was maintained over 4 months of differentiation of hESC, in cultures which included cardiomyocytes and endothelial cells. In contrast, primary cultures of human aortic endothelial cells (HAEC) demonstrated responses to a broad range of PAMPs. Expression of downstream TLR signalling pathways was demonstrated in hESC, and IL-1β, TNFα and INFγ, which bypass the TLRs, stimulated CXCL8 release. NFκB pathway expression was also present in hESC and NFκB was able to translocate to the nucleus. Low expression levels of TLRs were detected in hESC, especially TLRs 1 and 4, explaining the lack of response of hESC to the main TLR signals. TLR5 levels were similar between differentiated hESC and HAEC, and siRNA knockdown of TLR5 abolished the response to flagellin. These findings have potential implications for survival and function of grafted hESC-derived cells

Defying De-Stalinization: Albania’s 1956

Drawing on recently declassified Albanian, Soviet, East German, and Western archival sources, as well as a rich historiography on Nikita Khrushchev\u27s secret speech and the Hungarian revolution of 1956, this article investigates the little-known events of 1956 in Albania. Rejecting de-Stalinization, the Albanian Communist leader Enver Hoxha was able to vindicate his position against Yugoslavia\u27s brand of socialism abroad, fortify his rule at home, and claim more aid from Moscow, Beijing, and the Soviet bloc. This article discusses the Tirana Party Conference of April 1956, treating the Albanian Party of Labor (the Communist party) as an “information society.” The article assesses deliberations over security and ideology at the highest levels and demonstrates how tiny Albania came to embody, in exaggerated form, both the promises and the perils of socialist exchange, in addition to mirroring the profound inconsistencies of Khrushchev\u27s de-Stalinization campaign

Pathogen Sensing Pathways in Human Embryonic Stem Cell Derived-Endothelial Cells: Role of NOD1 Receptors.

Human embryonic stem cell-derived endothelial cells (hESC-EC), as well as other stem cell derived endothelial cells, have a range of applications in cardiovascular research and disease treatment. Endothelial cells sense Gram-negative bacteria via the pattern recognition receptors (PRR) Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 and nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain-containing protein (NOD)-1. These pathways are important in terms of sensing infection, but TLR4 is also associated with vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis. Here, we have compared TLR4 and NOD1 responses in hESC-EC with those of endothelial cells derived from other stem cells and with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). HUVEC, endothelial cells derived from blood progenitors (blood outgrowth endothelial cells; BOEC), and from induced pluripotent stem cells all displayed both a TLR4 and NOD1 response. However, hESC-EC had no TLR4 function, but did have functional NOD1 receptors. In vivo conditioning in nude rats did not confer TLR4 expression in hESC-EC. Despite having no TLR4 function, hESC-EC sensed Gram-negative bacteria, a response that was found to be mediated by NOD1 and the associated RIP2 signalling pathways. Thus, hESC-EC are TLR4 deficient but respond to bacteria via NOD1. This data suggests that hESC-EC may be protected from unwanted TLR4-mediated vascular inflammation, thus offering a potential therapeutic advantage

Tensions nationales et menace sur la sécurité dans les Balkans

Nationalist Tensions Menace Balkan Security, by Paul Lendvai The Balkan peninsula has regained its traditional role as the tinder-box of Europe and the crucible of nationalist and populist ideas. The nationalist problems of the Balkan states are more acute now than at the tinte of Communist accession to power 45 years ago. Political instability and the tendency to play on national sentiments to gain popular support have contributed to the disintegration of the region. In Yugoslavia, the postwar federal and political structures set up by Tito hâve been destroyed and the situation poses a grave threat to security and coopération. In Hungary, the collapse of the Communist régime and a strong national-populist tendency within the présent government have transformed legitimate concern for the fate of three and a half million ethnie Hungarians living in neighbouring countries into a highly sensitive political issue. In Bulgaria, regional coopération, security and stability are also threatened by nationalist hostility against the Turkish mino-rity. The Balkans and the entire Eastern and South Eastern European region are experiencing tribalisation and nationalist splintering. It therefore looks as if the creation of a new European order is still a utopian dream.La péninsule balkanique retrouve son rôle traditionnel de discorde, poudrière de l'Europe et creuset d'idées nationalistes et populistes. Le problème national des Etats balkaniques apparaît aujourd'hui plus aigu qu'il ne l'était lorsque les communistes se sont emparés du pouvoir, il y a 45 ans. L'instabilité politique et la tendance à faire vibrer la corde du nationalisme pour gagner le soutien populaire contribuent à la désintégration de la région. En Yougoslavie, la structure fédérale et politique de l'après-guerre, mise en place par Tito, s'est anéantie, faisant peser une lourde menace sur la sécurité et la coopération dans les Balkans. En Hongrie, l'effondrement du régime communiste et la prépondérance de la tendance national-populiste au sein de l'actuel gouvernement ont transformé les préoccupations légitimes sur le sort des 3 à 3,5 millions de Hongrois vivant dans les pays avoisinants en une question politique extrêmement sensible. En Bulgarie, la coopération, la sécurité et la stabilité régionales sont également menacées par la réaction nationaliste contre la minorité turque. Ainsi, à la place de l'« européanisation », on assiste une « tribalisation » et à une « nationalisation » des Balkans et de toute la région de l'Europe de l'Est et du Sud- est. La quête des pays occidentaux d'un « ordre » véritablement nouveau n'est-elle alors pas, pour instant encore, une utopie ?Lendvai. Tensions nationales et menace sur la sécurité dans les Balkans. In: Politique étrangère, n°3 - 1991 - 56ᵉannée. pp. 643-648