Concrete Impacts: Blast Walls, Wartime Emissions, and the US Occupation of Iraq

Militaries around the world are a major source of carbon emissions, yet very little is known about their carbon footprint. Reliable data around military resource use and environmental damage is highly variable. Researchers are dependent upon military transparency, the context of military operations, and broader emissions reporting. While studies are beginning to emerge on global militaries and their carbon footprints, less work has focused on wartime emissions. We examine one sliver of the hidden carbon emissions of late‐modern warfare by focusing on the use of concrete “blast walls” by US forces in Baghdad over a five‐year period (2003–2008). This study uses a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to study one of the world's largest military carbon footprints of concrete, an infrastructural weapon in late‐modern urban counterinsurgencies. Moving beyond dominant discourses on climate‐security and “greening”, we present one of the first studies to expose direct and indirect military emissions resulting from combat

The hidden socio-ecological impacts of modern warfare- evidence from the US Military combat operations in Iraq

War and military intervention are damaging to the wider environment and the communities that rely on these environments. Concrete blast walls have become a major weapon in modern battlefield for protection against explosions and to restrict the movement of insurgents. However, the environmental and social impacts of their production and use remain under the research and policy radar as there are no frameworks for monitoring and reporting such scope III military emissions. We examined the extent of concrete wall used in Baghdad, the embodied carbon and socio-economic impacts on the populace using life cycle analysis techniques and content analysis of existing literature on the socio-economic effects. The concrete slaps littered in Baghdad altered the urban fabric, restricted movement of people and vehicles and increased economic hardships. The embodied carbon of these walls amounts to about 199 thousand tonnes C02e which is comparable with the carbon emissions from 43,282 average sized passenger vehicles on the road for one year. We recommend that robust framework for reporting military emissions be spelt out by the United Framework Convention on Climate Change and emissions included in national inventories

Are rising cities a panacea for economic growth in Africa? : The case of Ghana and Tanzania

There is consensus on the interdependence between urbanisation and economic growth. However, whether urbanisation is a stimulus for growth or a byproduct of growth remains contested. While African nations are urbanizing, there have not been commensurate dividends in the socioeconomic fortunes of many, as urban poverty and social problems in cities remain. Recent pattens of urbanisation and economic growth in many African countries tend to challenge the prevailing rhetoric that cities are the engines of growth. Thus, key questions remain: Is urbanisation a panacea for socioeconomic growth or is this relationship contingent on some preconditions and policies? In this paper, we interrogate development trajectories of two African countries which have maintained sustained economic growth with accelerating urban transitions-Ghana and Tanzania. We draw evidence from United Nation’s population data, world development indicators from the World Bank, national sample surveys and existing literature including institutional reports. The linear relationship between urbanisation and economic growth is evident in both countries in terms of GDP per capita. A large and rising share of economically active population aged 25-64 is an asset for both countries. In Ghana, cities have remained the engine of economic growth evidenced by the continuous rise in urban based services as a share of GDP and declining share of Agriculture. The corollary is reduction in urban poverty but a rise in rural poverty. National level gains in poverty reduction is attenuated by inequality between urban and rural localities. In Tanzania, reduction in absolute poverty (comprising basic needs and food) in 2020 was evident comparing with 1991 levels. The dominance of private, local, and informal sector in the cities which is characterized by female-dominated retail and wholesale as well as the dwindling industry sector have given rise to consumption cities and not production particularly in Ghana. Consequently, job creation in cities is not in tandem with the rising skilled population resulting in unemployment and underemployment to a larger extent. The rising demand for food in cities has been met by the import of food and agricultural products further weaking the Agricultural sector and rural localities. Recent Agriculture sector interventions have started yielding dividends by boosting the productivity mainly through food crops production. Informality in cities and the associated congestion, growth in slums, and deficit in social amenities such as sanitation services remain a byproduct of the unplanned urbanisation. Levels of urbanisation and growth vary in Tanzania and Ghana context and would require varying degrees of urban policies. Broadly, urban policies which aim at generating resources, connecting urban markets to rural goods, building the foundation to expand economic activities beyound the informal sector, and building robust city infrastructure and services could create sustainable economic growth

Women in Agriculture, Migration and Dietary Diversity in Four Agro-Ecological Zones in Ghana

Women in Agriculture, Migration and Dietary Diversity in Four Agro-Ecological Zones in Ghana Internal Union for the Scientific Study of Populations (IUSSP) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, 2017 Introduction Climate change has significant impact on food production in Africa due to over-reliance rain-fed agriculture (McKune et al., 2015; Lake et al., 2012; Lam et al., 2012; World Bank 2007). This varies across agro-ecological zones due to differences in climatic factors and type of crop produced (FAO, 2008). The poor crop yield has trigged mass migration of the working age population to urban areas, which threatens the food security of those left behind. Though migration is a documented adaptation strategy to climate change, there is limited scholarship on how it affects household food security (IPCC, 2014). It is expected that migrants will send remittances to support the family left behind, and ultimately enhance their food security. Women who stay behind in their communities play a critical role in food production (Danso et al., 2004). Unlike men who mostly cultivate cash crops for income, women are mostly involved in subsistence farming to feed their families (Boakye-Acheampong et al., 2012). However, little is known about their contribution to household food utilization. This study therefore sought to investigate the effect of women involved in agriculture in maintaining dietary diversity of their households. We also examined the role of migrants on household dietary diversity. It is expected that this study will contribute to policies aimed at enhancing household food security amidst changing climate. Methodology Study communities The study was carried out in four communities- Amansie West, Mfantseman, Techiman and Tolon in the Rainforest, the Coastal Savannah, Transition and Guinea Savannah agro-ecological zones respectively in Ghana. The rainfall and temperature conditions, the types of crops grown and the conditions surrounding agricultural productions vary significant across these zones, and therefore have the tendency of influencing the food availability and choices in these communities. Data We used data from a cross-sectional survey from the Women, Climate Change and Food Security project conducted at Regional Institute for Population Studies (RIPS) between May and July, 2016. Measures We computed household dietary diversity (HDD) as proxy for nutritional adequacy of the household. The HDD measure has previously been used by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2011), Codjoe, Okutu & Mumuni, (2016) and also Kennedy et al., (2010). The score was computed from responses of household heads on food consumed by household members both at home and outside for seven days preceding the survey, in accordance with the Radimir/Cornell scale. We used ten food categories adopted from the FAO’s food category for West Africa (FAO, 2011), as there is no international consensus on which food categories to include in the HDD score. The score, which was an accumulation of the frequency of food eaten from each category by a member of the household, yielded a range from 0 to 9. The household was explained as a group of people who eat from the same pot when food is prepared at home and who get money for street food from the same source. Data analysis At the univariate level, frequency of consumption was aggregated for each food category. A series of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were done to examine which variables significantly explain the variance in HDD at the bivariate level for the categorical variables. Bivariate correlations were done between the continuous variables and the HDD score. Then a multiple linear regression model was done to examine the variables that significantly predict the HDD score. Results Univariate The HDD score has a minimum of 0 and maximum of 9. It has a normal distribution with mean score of 4.86 and standard deviation of 1.63. The univariate analysis indicates that meat/egg/fish was the most frequently consumed food. The food categories are cereals, tubers/roots crops, fruits, vegetables, fruits, fats/oils, meat/fish/egg, beans/peas/nuts, milk products, and beverages. The most frequently consumed food category was the meat/egg/fish and the least consumed was milk products. These varied across agro-ecological zones. Bivariate The result from the one-way analysis of variance showed that ecological zone, marital status, sex of household head, ethnicity, occupation and ethnicity and religion significantly explained the variance in HDD. The post hoc test indicated that dietary diversity for respondents in the Guinea Savannah is significantly higher (mean= 5.57, SD=1.98) than all the other ecological zones- Transition (mean=5.05, SD=1.98), Coastal Savannah (mean=4.96, SD=1.62) and Rainforest (mean=4.86, SD=1.63). With regards to religious affiliation, respondents in the other Christian category (comprising Jehovah Witnesses and Seventh Day Adventists) had significantly lower dietary diversity (mean=4.33, SD=1.45) than the Catholics (mean=5.19, SD=1.65), the Protestants (mean=5.12, SD=1.66), the Pentecostals/Charismatics (mean=5.39, SD=1.65) and Muslims (mean=5.54, SD=2.05). This is not unexpected as the other Christians have a number of dietary restrictions. Education level of the household head did not significantly explain the variance in HDD. With regards to ethnicity, Akans have significantly lower HDD (mean=4.67, SD=1.67) than the Mole-Dagbani (mean=5.57, SD=1.57), the Nzema (mean=1.26, SD=1.26) and other ethnic group which comprises the Ewe and Guan (mean=5.26, SD=1.26). Again, female headed households have significantly higher HDD (mean=5.38, SD=1.81) than male headed households (mean=4.71, SD=1.78). This corroborates the literature that argues that females play integral roles in food production, distribution and processing. Multivariate The multiple linear regression analysis further revealed that social network, ecological zone, occupation of household head, education of household head, wealth category, and ethnicity are significant predictors of HDD. With regards to the agro-ecological zone, households in the Rainforest, Coastal Savannah, Transition zones respectively have 0.22, 0.29 and 0.12 less HDD than those in Guinea Savannah. A unit increase in a household’s social network increases the HDD by 0.06. In addition, households with heads involved in farming as their primary occupation have 0.03 lower food diversity than those involved in other occupations. This is due to the subsistence nature of farming in Ghana, where people virtually consume what they grow and do not have the capacity to purchase other food categories. Explaining this point further, the model revealed that rich households had 0.11 higher dietary diversity score than poor household. In households where the head had no education, the dietary diversity score was 0.08 lower than those with higher education; the more educated would want to eat from diverse food categories, due to the knowledge of nutrition. Contrary to what is expected, there was no significant difference between migrant and non-migrant households in terms of their dietary diversity. Conclusion The most frequently consumed food category is meat/egg/fish. Milk products category was the least frequently consumed food category. The variables that significantly explain the variance in HDD are sex of household head, women in the household involved in agriculture, type of agro-ecological zone, marital status and primary occupation of household head. Out of these variables, agro-ecological zones, marital status, household wealth, occupation of household head were significant predictors of the HDD. Household heads in marital union had higher dietary diversity than those not in any union. Households with migrants did not show higher HDD as hypothesized. As hypothesized, households with women engaged in agriculture had significantly higher HDD than those without. Providing the enabling environment for women in agriculture is therefore key to enhancing household food security

Connect rather than neglect : Reframing Ghana’s urban WASH policies for informal settlements in support of its ‘rising through cities’ aspiration

Ghana is perhaps one of few African countries that are experiencing steady economic growth through the development of cities. Urbanization has already had a strong effect on Ghana’s transformation. Since 1984, annual GDP has grown rapidly, averaging 5.7 percent. This rapid economic growth has resulted in a reduction in poverty in both rural and urban but not without the consequences of unguided urban expansion; about 40% of the population in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area live in informal settlements. There is limited access to/ poor quality of basic services and affordable quality housing, and a general lack of fit-for-purpose urban policies. The leadership of Ghana acknowledges that if unaddressed these consequences could create ‘a grave danger’ for the country, and its ‘Rising through cities in Ghana’ aspiration. In this paper, however, we observe that these higher-level acknowledgement and aspiration are not touching the lives of millions of informal dwellers in Accra and other cities across Ghana. Using the example of WASH (water supply, sanitation and hygiene) sector policies, we reveal a systematic neglect of the urban poor in these policies and actions. As in most developing counties, Ghana’s urban sector policies favour the neoliberal subjects, i.e. those who can pay for the services on offer. As dwellers of informal settlements typically fail to pay for services, they do not themselves become neoliberal subjects, resulting in their exclusion from having legitimate access to the planned services. We present initial findings of the nature and extent of this neglect by drawing on detailed analysis of two informal communities in Accra – Madina Zongo and Gbegbeyise. We find that the access to/ quality of WASH provision is influenced by the lack of official urban polities and ways in which the ‘real world’ of informal urban governance improvises alternative solutions that are sub-optimal in quantity or quality with far reaching negative consequences. We therefore propose that the framing of WASH sector policies, and indeed all urban sector policies, that underpin the visionary ‘Rising through cities in Ghana’ are best approached from the viewpoint of connection rather than neglect of the urban poor. The concluding section examine the prospects for making urban governance more connected to the informal communities by incorporating the prevailing informal governance structures and processes into the official structures and processes via development coalition

Comparative analysis of access to WASH facilities and risk of microbial infection to children in poor urban communities in Accra, Ghana

Water quality is often compromised during the transmission chain in poor urban communities due to exposure to faecal matter. Uncontained toilet facilities and indiscriminate faecal disposal results in contamination of water sources with consequent enteric infections especially among children. This study aimed to analyse the linkage between accessibility to WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) facilities in two urban poor communities; and to spatially predict the risk of infection to children under five years. We mapped building blocks, households, toilet facilities, drains and water sources using orthophotos generated from UAV images and Real-Time Kinematic GPS surveys in two poor urban settlements- Madina Zongo and Gbegbeyise- in Accra. We enumerated 1, 680 households in the two study sites taking key indicators such as number of children under 5 years and duration of water storage. Results from the study show that most sanitation facilities were shared by multiple households. Water points and toilet facilities had uniform geographical coverage in Madina Zongo compared to Gbebseyise. In Madina Zongo, water and toilet facilities are mostly private, shared by users from the house where the facilities are located. In Gbegbeyise, most of the facilities are public use, open to several community members. The flash points in the drains mapped indicates several potential sources of contamination. Further, larger proportion of households in the two communities rely on water sources from storage tanks due to the infrequent water flow (more than 61.8% in Madina above the median water storage days for both rainy and dry seasons and more than 56.1% in Gbegbeyise above the average days of water storage for both rainy and dry seasons). A significant number of houses in Madina Zongo, use unprotected well as alternative source of water to the pipe water. Baseline water quality monitoring revealed that water from treatment point were devoid of total coliform and faecal coliform indicating safe drinking water source. However, several water samples collected at point of use showed presence of faecal matter. Mapping the distribution of infection risk adjusted for WASH allowed the identification of communities where interventions to improve WASH will yield the greatest health benefits

Collaboration between Chiefs and Local Government Actors in Combating Climate Change: Evidence from New Juaben, Ghana

Institutional barriers remain a constraint to efficient adaptation to climate change in many countries. Therefore, there is much to be desired regarding knowledge on the capacity and roles of local institutions in responding to climate change across sectors and locales. Drawing evidence from randomly selected chiefs and local government actors, and purposively selected officials of the Municipal Assembly, we examined how partnership between local government actors and informal institutions such as chieftaincy could enhance coordinated and integrated climate action and adaptation planning in local communities. All interviews were transcribed and analysed in themes generated from deductive codes. Participants demonstrated varied levels of knowledge on the causes and impacts of climate change. We observed the implementation of several unstructured climate change activities in local communities as actors of the two institutions individually and collaboratively implemented some adaptation and mitigation actions. We therefore conclude that when given the right attention, by addressing the problems which include financial allocation, low capacity of personnel, and the lack of coordination between units that confront the local institutions, informal institutions and local government actors, could spearhead lasting climate change adaptation and mitigation programmes, and produce equity and sustainability at the national level