The Two-Part Gender Revolution, Women’s Second Shift and Changing Cohort Fertility

The two parts of the gender revolution have been evolving side by side at least since the 1960s. The first part, women’s entry into the public sphere, proceeded faster than the second part, men’s entry into the private sphere. Consequently, many employed mothers have carried a greater burden of paid and unpaid family support than fathers throughout the second half of the 20th century. This constituted women’s “second shift,” depressing fertility. A central focus of this paper is to establish second shift trends during the second half of the 20th century and their effects on fertility. Our analyses are based on data on cohort fertility, male and female labor force participation, and male and female domestic hours worked from 11 countries in Northern Europe, Western/central Europe, Southern Europe, and North America between 1960/70 and 2000/2014. We find that the gender revolution had not generated a turnaround, i.e. an increase in cohort fertility, by the end of the 20th century. Nevertheless, wherever the gender revolution has made progress in reducing women’s second shift, cohort fertility declined the least; where the second shift is large and/or has not been reduced, cohort fertility has declined the most

Now or later? The theory of planned behaviour and fertility intentions

We use the theory of planned behavior to investigate the role of attitudes, norms and perceived behavioural control on short-term and long-term fertility intentions, using data from Norway (N = 1,307). There is some evidence that, net of other background variables, positive scores on these factors makes it easier to establish concrete childbearing plans, especially among parents. Subjective norms are particularly important among both parents and childless adults, while perceptions of behavioural control have no additional effect once the actual life situation is taken into account. Attitudes are not important in decisions about the timing of becoming a parent, probably because the main issue for childless adults is not the timing, but the decision to have a child or not

Symptoms of Depression, Anxiety, and Posttraumatic Stress among Patients with Cardiac Pacemakers

Despite being a prerequisite for tailoring specific therapeutic interventions, knowledge of pattern and prevalence of clinically significant psychiatric symptomatology among patients with cardiac pacemakers (PMs), especially of symptoms of posttraumatic stress, is limited. We studied symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress among PM patients (PM due to syncope or presyncope) compared to participants of (i) a cardiac, (ii) a chronic disease, and (iii) a healthy control group. Symptoms of depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress were measured by validated self-report scales at least 6 months after implantation of the PM (PM group; n = 38), percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI; PCI control group; n = 23), and first dialysis (Dialysis control group; n = 17). Blood donors constituted the Healthy control group (n = 42). Both PM, PCI, and dialysis patients reported depressive symptoms above clinical cut-off more frequently than the healthy controls (16.2, 26.1, 41.2, and 0%, respectively; p < 0.001). Self-report of symptoms of anxiety and posttraumatic stress did not differ significantly across study groups. However, a non-negligible proportion of PM patients reported on symptoms of posttraumatic stress of anticipated clinical relevance. Identification and treatment of depression deserves attention in clinical routine in all three patient populations. Further study of posttraumatic stress in PM patients seems advisable

Couples' parental leave practices : the role of the workplace situation

Abstract: We address the issue of the relationship between couples’ parental leave practices and their workplace situation. This analysis is based on information from Norwegian administrative registers on around 200 000 couples, covering a period of almost 10 years. The most common practice among couples is that a father makes use of his exclusive right to father’s leave and the mother uses all common leave. There are few obstacles in fathers’ workplaces limiting father’s leave, except in workplaces where there are high costs involved. Parental leave practices involving couples sharing part of their common leave are associated both with mothers’ workplaces, with higher costs of absence, and fathers’ workplaces, with lower costs of absenceThis research was supported by the Research Council of Norway, grant number 17105/V20

Mellom to kulturer : fruktbarhetsmønstre blant innvandrerkvinner i Norge

Denne rapporten presenterer registerbaserte analyser av fruktbarheten til innvandrerkvinner bosatt i Norge per 1. januar 1999. Rapporten er en del av prosjektet ”Registerbaserte analyser av fruktbarheten i Norge” som ble satt i gang av Seksjon for demografi og levekårsforskning i Statistisk sentralbyrå i 1997. De registerbaserte dataene er hentet fra fødselshistoriefilen som er basert på opplysninger fra Det sentrale folkeregister. Fødselshistoriefilen gir tilnærmet komplette fødselshistorier for kvinner født etter 1935. Rapporten viser for det første at det er store variasjoner i fruktbarheten mellom ulike grupper blant innvandrerkvinner i Norge. For det andre viser den hvilke forhold som påvirker innvandrerkvinners fruktbarhet og hvordan fruktbarheten endres over tid. Dette blir gjort både gjennom analyser hvor en sammenligner kvinner som innvandret til Norge mens de var i fruktbar alder, og ved å sammenligne andregenerasjonsinnvandrere og kvinner som innvandret som helt små med kvinner uten innvandrerbakgrunn. Hovedtendensen er at det skjer en tilnærming i fruktbarheten mot norsk fruktbarhetsmønster i alle innvandrergrupper etter som botid i Norge øker, men at det er variasjoner i hvilket tempo dette skjer. Videre ser andregenerasjonsinnvandrere ut til å ligne mer på den øvrige befolkningen i Norge, enn på de som innvandret som voksne. Temaet i denne rapporten er variasjoner i fruktbarhetsmønstre blant innvandrerkvinner i Norge. Rapporten er en del av prosjektet "Registerbaserte analyser av fruktbarheten i Norge". I dette prosjektet har vi hatt to målsettinger. Det ene er å vise forskjeller og variasjoner i fruktbarheten mellom ulike grupper av innvandrerkvinner i Norge. Det andre er å studere hvilke forhold som påvirker innvandrerkvinners fruktbarhet og i hvilken grad fruktbarheten endres over tid. Analysene i rapporten tar utgangspunkt i kvinner født etter 1935 som var bosatt i Norge per 1. januar 1999. Med innvandrerkvinner mener vi både førstegenerasjonsinnvandrere uten norsk bakgrunn, det vil si født i utlandet av foreldre som også er født i utlandet, og andregenerasjonsinnvandrere som er født i Norge av foreldre som er født i utlandet. Endringer i fruktbarheten til innvandrerkvinner blir gjerne sett på som ett (blant mange) mål på integrasjon. Tilpasninger i fruktbarheten mot det som er vanlig i den øvrige befolkningen blir i teorier som ser på endringer i fruktbarheten med økende botid i det nye landet sett på som et resultat av en integreringsprosess

Cohort Fertility Patterns in the Nordic Countries

Previous analyses of period fertility suggest that the trends of the Nordic countries are sufficiently similar that we may speak of a common "Nordic fertility regime". We investigate whether this assumption can be corroborated by comparing cohort fertility patterns in the Nordic countries. We study cumulated and completed fertility of Nordic birth cohorts based on the childbearing histories of women born in 1935 and later derived from the population registers of Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. We further explore childbearing behaviour by women’s educational attainment. The results show remarkable similarities in postponement and recuperation between the countries. Median childbearing age is about two to three years higher in the 1960−64 cohort than in the 1950−54 cohort, but the younger cohort recuperates the fertility level of the older cohort at ages 30 and above. A similar pattern of recuperation can be observed for highly educated women compared to women with less education, resulting in small differences in completed fertility across educational groups. Another interesting finding is that of a positive relationship between educational level and the final number of children when women who become mothers at similar ages are compared. Despite some differences in the levels of childlessness, country differences in fertility outcome are generally small. The cohort analyses thus support the notion of a common Nordic fertility regime.cohort fertility, educational attainment, Nordic countries, postponement, recuperation

Valg av livsløp i det flerkulturelle Norge : Forløpsanalyser av giftermål og barnefødsler blant kvinner med innvandrerbakgrunn

Denne rapporten er en del av prosjektet "Valg av livsløp i det flerkulturelle Norge — Pardannelse og familieetablering blant kvinner med innvandrerbakgrunn". Prosjektet er finansiert av Norges Forskningsråd, Kultur og samfunn, IMERprogrammet. Hensikten med rapporten er å vise variasjoner i giftermål og barnefødsler blant kvinner med innvandrerbakgrunn ved bruk av forløpsanalyse. Når vi bruker forløpsanalyse kan vi kontrollere for ulike faktorer som kan påvirke variasjonene en finner mellom grupper av kvinner. Samtidig tar modellen hensyn til at hendelsene (giftermål eller barnefødsler) skjer på ulike tidspunkt og med ulik eksponeringstid. Det er blitt laget separate modeller for kvinner som innvandret som voksne og kvinner som har hatt hele eller deler av barndommen sin i Norge. Analysene viser at det er store forskjeller mellom kvinner med ulik landbakgrunn i hvor raskt de gifter seg og får barn etter innvandring. Blant kvinner som har vokst opp i Norge er det store forskjeller i aldersplasseringen av ekteskapsinngåelse enn i aldersplasseringen av første fødsel mellom kvinner med ulik landbakgrunn. Forskningssjef Kari Skrede har vært prosjektleder. Anders Akselsen og Carina Nordseth har tilrettelagt data fra FDTrygd til en SAS-datasett. Benedicte Lie og Svein Blom har vært med og diskutert funnene fra analysene på et tidlig tidspunkt. Lars Østby og Kari Skrede har lest og kommentert rapporten

Understanding the positive effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on women’s fertility in Norway

This study examines the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on fertility in Norway at the individual level. Studies using data at the macro level have found a positive short-term effect of the pandemic on fertility level in Norway, but women’s fertility response to the pandemic may differ depending on their life situation. We use the first lockdown on March 12, 2020 as a marker of the pandemic and apply a regression discontinuity design to compare births of women that were conceived before the pandemic started with those conceived during the first eight months of the pandemic. The positive effect on women’s fertility in Norway was mainly driven by women in life phases that have generally high fertility rates (women aged 28–35 years and women who already have children). These groups are likely to be in an economic and socially secure and stable situation in which the restrictions due to the pandemic had limited influence. Besides two exceptions, we do not find differences in the effect of the pandemic on childbearing by women’s work situation. This is most likely related to the strong welfare state and the generous additional pandemic-related measures taken by the Norwegian government

Covid-19 could generate a baby ‘bust’ in the Nordic countries

Previous epidemics have been associated with a fall in births. Trude Lappegård, Axel Peter Kristensen and Svenn-Erik Mamelund assess what the Covid-19 pandemic could mean for birth rates in the Nordic countries, which were already declining prior to the virus. They argue that financial insecurity generated by the outbreak could encourage young adults to put off starting a family, producing a baby ‘bust’

High-density lipoprotein subfractions: Much ado about nothing or clinically important?

High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are a heterogenous group of plasma molecules with a large variety in composition. There is a wide specter in lipid content and the number of different proteins that has been associated with HDL is approaching 100. Given this heterogeneity and the fact that the total amount of HDL is inversely related to the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD), there has been increasing interest in the function of specific HDL subgroups and in what way measuring and quantifying these subgroups could be of clinical importance in determining individual CHD risk. If certain subgroups appear to be more protective than others, it may also in the future be possible to pharmacologically increase beneficial and decrease harmful subgroups in order to reduce CHD risk. In this review we give a short historical perspective, summarize some of the recent clinical findings regarding HDL subclassifications and discuss why such classification may or may not be of clinical relevance