Does Gender Ideology Matter? Pre-pandemic Gender Role Attitudes and the Division of Housework and Childcare During COVID-19 in Germany

Women and mothers perform the lion’s share of unpaid family labor (i.e., housework and childcare) in Germany, negatively affecting their finances, time resources, opportunities in life, and mental health. The constraints brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, including the pandemic-related changes in working hours, are thought to have reorganized the division of unpaid family labor. However, changes in time availability alone cannot explain couples’ heterogeneous pandemic responses. While framing the pandemic as a natural experiment, we first examine how individuals’ pre-pandemic gender role attitudes (GRAs) shape the division of family labor during the pandemic. Second, we examine how individuals’ pre-pandemic GRAs moderate the effect of changing working hours during the pandemic on the division of family labor. We use Waves 11 and 13 of the German Family Panel “pairfam” to analyze two samples and questions. We examine (1) respondents in heterosexual, cohabitating relationships with and without children to study the division of housework and (2) respondents in heterosexual, cohabitating relationships living with at least one child to study the division of childcare. We find that individuals holding traditional pre-pandemic GRAs are, to some degree, more likely to have had a higher female share of family labor during the pandemic: for both housework and childcare, this association can be found for the samples as a whole, as well as for the sample with only men, but not for only women. However, the association is small and – for housework – only marginally significant. Most notably, we find evidence for a three-way-interaction between gender, GRAs, and changes in time availability for childcare: egalitarian men who reduced working hours took on a significantly greater share of childcare than traditional men did, consistent with the idea of “gender deviance neutralization”. Traditionally-oriented men might take on less female-connotated unpaid labor, as their reduced engagement in the labor market does not match their masculinity ideals. We found no moderation effect of GRAs on the influence of increasing working hours during the pandemic on the division of family labor, neither for women nor men. Our analysis provides new insights into gendered interactional processes regarding time availability and its association with the gendered division of housework and childcare in a quasi-experimental setting that reduces endogeneity. While association sizes are small, our findings support the notion of a complex interplay between gender, GRAs, and time availability in the gendered division of labor

When Gender Trumps Skills: Employment Trajectories of Austrian Parents After Their First Birth

Increasing the labour market participation of mothers is often seen as a solution to address skill shortages in countries with long child-related career interruptions. However, little is known about the leave-taking behaviour of parents with higher and lower skill levels. This study addresses that gap by examining how employment trajectories after the transition to parenthood vary by gender and skill level in Austria, which has one of the longest parental leave entitlements globally. We focus on understanding whether skill differences shape leave-taking and labour market re-entry, and to what extent they explain the large and persistent gender gaps in parental employment. We use a new dataset that, for the first time, links Austrian administrative data on births and daily labour market activities (2009-2022) with tested skill scores from the OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Our main sample includes 5,130 Austrians born between 1942 and 1997. We focus on tested numeracy skills, which are strongly associated with employment and wages, offer a more precise measure of work-relevant skills than formal education, and account for important parts of the gender pay gap. Adopting a life-course perspective, we observe labour market patterns between the ages 20 and 70, and examine the three years before and after the birth of a first child to capture short- and medium-term dynamics. We find clear differences by skill level. Higher-skilled women tend to return to employment more quickly and are more likely to use educational leave to extend their parental leave. Lower-skilled mothers, by contrast, experience longer periods out of the labour force. Among fathers, skill gradients are present as well: higher-skilled men are more likely to take parental leave than their lower-skilled counterparts, though leave uptake remains very low in absolute terms. However, gender trumps skills. On average, mothers take 416 days of paid parental leave following the birth of their first child, while fathers take just nine days. Most mothers remain at home well beyond the period of paid leave, and part-time work is common upon return – regardless of skill level. Our findings suggest that policies aimed at increasing female labour market participation − particularly among the skilled − face structural constraints. In a context of demographic ageing and rising skill shortages, improving access to early childcare and encouraging more balanced leave-taking may be necessary to reduce gender gaps and make better use of existing skills across the workforce

Single Parents’ Subjective Well-being in Europe: A Multilevel Analysis

This study investigates how single parenthood is associated with subjective well-being across European countries, with a particular focus on financial satisfaction, social connectedness, and welfare policy. Moving beyond the traditional dichotomy between single and coupled parents, we introduce a four-category typology that distinguishes between parents who are single or in a couple, and whether they have experienced a divorce. Using multilevel data from the European Social Survey, we examine both individual-level and macro-level mediators/moderators of the relationship between family structure and life satisfaction. Results confirm that single parents report significantly lower subjective well-being compared to coupled parents. Financial satisfaction emerges as a key mediating mechanism, substantially reducing the well-being gap, although not eliminating it. Social connectedness plays a more consistent moderating role. At the macro level, generous and targeted welfare policies, particularly in childcare and parental leave, help narrow well-being disparities, but gaps persist even in the most supportive contexts. Our findings underscore the complex nature of disadvantage among single parents. They highlight the need for context-sensitive, targeted interventions that go beyond income support to address time poverty, caregiving strain, and structural exclusion

Childbearing Motivations and Fertility Desires: An Empirical Analysis for Norway

Understanding the motivations that underpin fertility decision-making can shed light on why people in low-fertility countries are increasingly having fewer or no children. Using data from the 2020 Norwegian Generations and Gender Survey, we examine 3,024 people of childbearing age and their childbearing motivations. We find that the childbearing motivations receiving the highest ratings are lifelong joy, fulfilling parental instinct, and the satisfaction of raising a child. Non-parents exhibit more negative motivations than parents, especially regarding care responsibilities. Gender differences in childbearing motivations emerge, with women giving a higher rating than men to the fulfilment of parental instinct, and men rating the time and energy burden of having children more highly. As expected, individuals with more positive and less negative childbearing motivations have higher fertility desires. However, on the whole, fertility desires appear to be influenced more by positive motivations than negative ones. This study emphasises the importance of individual perceptions and predispositions towards parenthood when examining fertility preferences

Not Only Births, But Also Intentions: The Decline of Fertility Intentions and Increasing Uncertainties in Sweden, 2012-2021

The decline in total fertility rates in Western countries, particularly the Nordic countries, has puzzled demographers. Researchers assume that the decline is associated with increasing perceptions of uncertainties about the future. In this study, we explore whether childbearing intentions have also declined and whether individuals have become more uncertain about future childbearing. To do so, we compare childbearing intentions expressed by participants in the 2012 and 2021 Swedish Generations and Gender Surveys. We present multinominal logistic regressions of respondents’ answers to the question whether they definitely or probably intend to have a(nother) child in the next three years and (if not) whether they (ever) intend to have a(nother) child in the future. Our findings indicate that the intentions to definitely have a(nother) child have declined across socio-demographic groups, and that uncertainties about future childbearing have increased. These changes were particularly pronounced among young people and among childless respondents, indicating a growing indecision as well as a growing tendency to remain childfree among groups that are relevant for future fertility development. The decline in intentions and the increase in uncertainties about childbearing indicate that the ongoing fertility decline cannot be classified as a temporary phenomenon. Rather, the results suggest that the decline will continue, because childbearing intentions are rarely fully realized. Our results are a step toward unraveling the puzzle of declining fertility in the Nordic region and beyond. The findings reveal that individuals have become more uncertain about future childbearing and that they have become more likely to retreat from childbearing

Ideations and Intentions in the Transition to Adulthood: A Cross-European Comparison

Ideations and intentions are important precursors of actual behaviour but are still understudied in the literature on the transition to adulthood. This article provides a descriptive overview of ideations and intentions about the timing of four key events in the transition to adulthood – exit from the parental home, cohabitation, marriage, and parenthood – using cross-national representative data for 33 European countries from the Generations and Gender Survey and European Social Survey. Results show that ideations and intentions about the transition to adulthood are, like behaviours, gendered and display distinctive country differences. The analysis of age-graded ideations and intentions suggests a mismatch between the ideal and actual ages at which key events occur during the transition to adulthood. Young people aged 18 to 34 in Europe consider it ideal to start a non-marital cohabitation, marry, and become parents during their 20s but, on average, experience these events later than their ideal timeline. This mismatch is particularly pronounced among men and for the events of marriage and parenthood

Reflections on Population Studies in the Age of AI

In his editorial, former editor of Comparative Population Studies (CPoS) Frans Willekens reflects on the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in population studies. Effective and responsible use of any tool requires a basic understanding of how it works, when it may be used, and when its use should be avoided. When this fundamental principle is observed, AI tools can enrich learning and research and help advance the frontiers of knowledge. Epistemic integrity and accountability remain essential; the advent of AI does not diminish that core value. Although generative AI is currently dominated by machine learning and relies on statistical inference to make predictions and generate content, rule-based AI, which dominated AI in the early days, is making a comeback. Students of population should critically engage with the expanding landscape of AI systems and resist the tendency towards technological monoculture. They should cultivate substantive collaborations with computer scientists to develop domain-specific AI systems that fully prepare population studies − with demography at its core − for the era of AI. * This article belongs to a series celebrating the journal's 50th anniversary

From ZfB to CPoS: A Dynamic Development in a Challenging Environment

This editorial, written by Norbert F. Schneider, who served as Director of the Federal Institute for Population Research (BiB) and publisher of Comparative Population Studies (CPoS) from 2009 to 2021, outlines the journal’s transformation during his tenure. Reflecting on the challenges the predecessor Zeitschrift für Bevölkerungswissenschaft (ZfB) faced, the strategic decisions made to reimagine the journal are discussed. Key milestones include the rebranding to CPoS, the transition to open access, the shift to an entirely English-language publication, and the adoption of a rolling publication model. Despite challenges, the journal has grown significantly, with increased international recognition and a solid ranking. On its 50th anniversary, the journal’s established position in the academic community of population research and demography is highlighted, emphasizing its commitment to high-quality publications and an efficient editorial process. * This article belongs to a series celebrating the journal's 50th anniversary

Comparative Population Studies at Fifty: Views on the Past, Present, and Future

 The 50th volume of Comparative Population Studies (CPoS) is a significant milestone in the journal’s history, offering us the opportunity to reflect on its development into a key platform for population research, major achievements, and future aspirations. Besides a retrospective, we present a forward-looking perspective, outlining our vision for the journal’s trajectory in an ever-changing scientific landscape. Furthermore, we offer insights from 50 years of CPoS, including the total number of submissions, the geographic origins of our authors, and an analysis of the journal’s most downloaded articles. This editorial is the first in a series accompanying CPoS volume 50 in our anniversary year. Further editorials by former CPoS editors, publishers, and authors will follow, giving an overview of the editorial processes, guiding principles, and strategic considerations that have and will continue to shape the journal’s identity and impact. * This article belongs to a series celebrating the journal's 50th anniversary

Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017

Seasonal trends in fertility are found in several contexts and are affected by societal and environmental factors. This paper documents how birth seasonality in East and West Germany changed over time and, in particular, after 1989 and the onset of Reunification. We use birth counts by month from the Human Fertility Database, broken down into East and West Germany, from 1946 to 2017. We observe similar birth seasonality in East and West Germany in the years from 1946 to the 1970s, with an initial peak occurring in the first months of the year followed by a second peak in September. In the 1970s, West Germany starts to diverge, with the emergence of a single peak in births in late summer. Shortly after Reunification, the seasonal fertility trends found in West Germany are mirrored in East Germany. Consequently, it appears that the socioeconomic, cultural and institutional differences in the two areas have potentially influenced the intra-annual distribution of births, as well as the timing and number of children as described in previous studies