Morphologie de l'adipocyte humain : méthodologie, dysfonction adipeuse et altérations cardiométaboliques

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2016-2017.L’accumulation excessive de gras viscéral est un marqueur majeur des altérations cardiométaboliques associées à l’obésité, telles que les dyslipidémies, la résistance à l’insuline et l’inflammation chronique de faible intensité. À l’inverse, pour un même niveau d’adiposité, l’accumulation préférentielle de tissu sous-cutané semble conférer un effet neutre, voire protecteur. Plusieurs mécanismes peuvent contribuer à l’apparition de l’obésité viscérale et à sa relation avec les facteurs de risque cardiométabolique. L’objectif général de ce mémoire est d’examiner la contribution de l’alimentation et de la morphologie des adipocytes à la physiopathologie de l’obésité viscérale chez l’humain. Pour atteindre cet objectif, nous avons d’abord effectué une revue de la littérature sur la modulation de la distribution des graisses par les composants nutritionnels. Cette étude a révélé que l’effet des nutriments sur la distribution des graisses survenait en grande partie via son effet sur la masse grasse totale. Nous avons ensuite réalisé une analyse critique de la littérature sur l’hypertrophie adipocytaire comme un marqueur de la dysfonction du tissu adipeux. Cette étude a confirmé que la taille adipocytaire des dépôts sous-cutané et viscéral est un excellent prédicteur des altérations du profil lipidique et de l’homéostasie du glucose et de l’insuline, indépendamment des mesures d’adiposité totale. Nous avons également constaté que chaque technique de mesure de la taille adipocytaire générait des résultats variables, et ce, sur tout l’intervalle des valeurs d’indice de masse corporelle. Enfin, dans une étude originale visant à comparer trois techniques de mesure de la taille adipocytaire, nous avons démontré que le choix d’une technique n’influençait pas de manière prononcée les associations entre la taille adipocytaire et les facteurs de risque cardiométabolique ainsi que les associations avec les différentes mesures d’adiposité, régionales ou totales. En conclusion, l’hypertrophie de l’adipocyte viscéral humain est une mesure importante dans l’évaluation du risque associé à l’obésité.Excess accumulation of visceral fat is a major marker of the cardiometabolic alterations associated with obesity such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and chronic low-grade inflammation. Conversely, for the same level of adiposity, preferential accumulation of subcutaneous adipose tissue has a neutral or protective effect. Several factors may contribute to the development of visceral adiposity and its relationship with cardiometabolic risk factors. The general objective of this master thesis is to examine the contribution of diet and the morphology of adipocytes in the pathophysiology of visceral obesity in humans. To achieve this goal, we first conducted a literature analysis on the modulation of fat distribution by nutritional components. This analysis revealed that the effect of nutrients on body fat distribution was mediated in large part by its effect on total fat accumulation. Second, we conducted a critical review of the literature on adipocyte hypertrophy as a marker of adipose tissue dysfunction. This study confirmed that adipocyte size of both subcutaneous and visceral depots is a strong predictor of alterations in the lipid profile and in glucose-insulin homeostasis, independently of adiposity. We also found that each of the measurement techniques for fat cell sizing generated variable results on the entire range of body mass index values. Third, in an original study aimed at comparing three measurement methods for cell sizing, we reported that the choice of technique had little impact on the associations between adipocyte size and cardiometabolic risk factors as well as the various adiposity indices, regional or total. In conclusion, human visceral adipocyte hypertrophy is an important measure to evaluate the risk associated with obesity

Adipose tissue dysfunction and hormonal alterations under various pathophysiological conditions : breast cancer and severe obesity

La prévalence de l'obésité et de ses complications, qui touchent un large éventail de systèmes physiologiques, augmente rapidement et nécessite un effort collectif accru afin de diminuer son incidence et sa progression. D'après les données recueillies à partir d'une kyrielle d'études, il est proposé que la dysfonction du tissu adipeux est déterminante dans le développement de plusieurs maladies non transmissibles telles que le diabète de type 2, l'hypertension, la stéatose hépatique non alcoolique, certaines dyslipidémies et le cancer du sein. Bien qu'il soit documenté que l'obésité puisse favoriser le cancer par une myriade de mécanismes, y compris par une sécrétion hormonale altérée, les données sont peu nombreuses sur le lien entre la dérégulation locale du tissu adipeux non desmoplasique et les facteurs pronostiques du cancer du sein, dont le phénotype tumoral et individuel ainsi que les aspects comportementaux des individus. Les données sont peu exhaustives sur la quantité de stéroïdes présents dans les tissus adipeux en particulier leur rôle et leur pertinence physiologique, au-delà du lien bien connu entre l'expression et l'activité de l'aromatase et la production des œstrogènes. L'objectif global de cette thèse était de décrire la dysfonction du tissu adipeux, en particulier ses aspects hormonaux et inflammatoires dans le cancer du sein et dans l'obésité sévère. Afin de brosser un portrait plus exhaustif de la portée des altérations induites par l'obésité, les caractéristiques de la tumeur, les phénotypes d'adiposité et les marqueurs d'habitudes de vie ont été combinés à une évaluation morphologique, des marquages cellulaires in situ et des données d'expression génique, ce qui nous a permis de représenter de façon détaillée la dysfonction du tissu adipeux local. À ce titre, dans le cadre de cette thèse, une multitude de nouvelles méthodes pour décrire le dysfonctionnement du tissu adipeux in situ ont été développées. Tout d'abord, un protocole a été mis au point pour caractériser les marqueurs de dysfonction des tissus adipeux congelés instantanément par des techniques de coloration tissulaires et des approches basées sur la reconnaissance antigénique, ce qui permet de tirer profit des échantillons provenant des biobanques. Un nouveau profil d'analyse de stéroïdes par spectrométrie de masse en tandem couplée à la chromatographie liquide dans le tissu adipeux mammaire a été adapté en appliquant une approche innovante de dérivatisation pour le défi que représente la détection et la quantification des œstrogènes pertinents dans un contexte biologique. Notre profil a été élargi afin de caractériser plus en détail le métabolome stéroïdien dans les tissus adipeux sous-cutanés et viscéraux dans l'obésité sévère et après une perte de poids induite par la chirurgie bariatrique. Les résultats suggèrent que les caractéristiques du tissu adipeux mammaire local sont associées aux marqueurs pronostiques du cancer du sein, c'est-à-dire, les marqueurs associés au mode de vie, l'adiposité et les caractéristiques tumorales autant chez les femmes pré- que post-ménopausées. Les quantités d'hormones stéroïdiennes sont associées à la sévérité des lésions mammaires, tout comme l'inflammation, représentée par l'infiltration des cellules inflammatoires et l'hypertrophie adipocytaire. Une amélioration du profil stéroïdien après une perte de poids substantielle a également été observée, ce qui met l'accent sur la capacité d'adaptation du tissu adipeux. En somme, les résultats présentés dans cette thèse soulignent le rôle de la dérégulation hormonale dans le tissu adipeux qui joue probablement un rôle de premier plan dans l'obésité, dans les altérations associées à l'obésité et dans le cancer du sein et révèlent que la dysfonction du tissu adipeux n'est que partiellement renversée par la chirurgie bariatrique.Obesity and its complications, which affect a wide array of organ systems, are rapidly increasing and require our increased collective efforts in order to limit its incidence and progression. Data gathered from a plethora of studies show that the dysfunction of adipose tissue is decisive for the development of several noncommunicable diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, certain dyslipidaemias, and breast cancer. Although it is well documented that obesity may foster cancer through a constellation of mechanisms, including detrimental hormonal secretion, data are scarce on the link between non-desmoplastic local adipose tissue dysregulation and breast cancer prognostic factors encompassing tumour and individual phenotypes along with behavioural aspects. There is also a scarcity of data concerning white adipose tissue steroid profile and its role in severe obesity and breast cancer. The physiological relevance of adipose tissue steroids beyond the aromatase and oestrogens nexus in the breast cancer paradigm remains largely unexplored. The overall objective of this thesis was to characterise adipose tissue dysfunction, in particular hormonal and inflammatory aspects of local adipose tissue in the context of both breast cancer and severe obesity. Tumour characteristics, adiposity phenotypes, and life style factors were assessed in order to paint a more complete picture of the roles of obesity-mediated alterations. Various techniques were applied to allow for a comprehensive assessment of local adipose tissue dysfunction. As such, in the framework of this thesis, new methods have been developed to describe adipose tissue dysfunction in situ. First, a protocol has been developed to characterise flash-frozen adipose tissue dysfunction markers by general staining and antibody recognition taking advantage of large biobanks. A new liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry steroid profile has been tailored for breast adipose tissue by applying an innovative derivatisation approach for the complex detection and quantification of bioactive oestrogens. Our profile has been expanded in order to characterise in more intricate details the steroid metabolome in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissues in severe obesity before and after surgery-induced weight loss. The results suggest that local breast adipose tissue features are associated with breast cancer prognostic markers, namely lifestyle, adiposity, and tumour features, in both pre- and postmenopausal women. Steroid hormone amounts were associated with the severity of the breast lesions as was inflammation, assessed by inflammatory cell infiltration and adipocyte hypertrophy. An improvement in steroid profile after substantial weight loss has also been observed which emphasises adipose tissue adaptability. Taken together, results displayed in this thesis underline the role of hormonal dysregulation in adipose tissue, which likely plays a significant role in obesity, obesity-associated alterations and in breast cancer, and unveil that adipose tissue dysfunction is only partially reversed by bariatric surgery

Adipocyte size as a determinant of metabolic disease and adipose tissue dysfunction

Obesity is a heterogeneous disease and is associated with comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Several studies have examined the role of dysfunctional adipose tissue in the pathogenesis of obesity, highlighting the contrasting properties and impact of distinct fat compartments, sometimes with contradictory results. Dysfunctional adipose tissue involves enlargement, or hypertrophy, of pre-existing fat cells, which is thought to confer increases in cardiometabolic risk, independent of the level of obesity per se . In this article, we critically analyze available literature that examined the ability of adipocyte cell size to predict metabolic disease and adipose tissue dysfunction in humans. Many studies demonstrate that increased fat cell size is a significant predictor of altered blood lipid profiles and glucose–insulin homeostasis independent of adiposity indices. The contri- bution of visceral adiposity to these associations appears to be of particular importance. However, available studies are not unanimous and many fat depot-specific aspects of the relationship between increased fat cell size and cardiometabolic risk or parameters of adipose tissue dysfunction are still unresolved. Methodological factors such as the approach used to express the data may represent significant confounders in these studies. Additional studies should consider the fact that the relationship between fat cell size and common adiposity indices is non-linear, particularly when reaching the obese range. In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that fat cell size is a significant predictor of the cardiometabolic alterations related to obesity. We propose that adipocyte hypertrophy, especially in the visceral fat compartment, may represent a strong marker of limited hyperplasic capacity in subcutaneous adipose tissues, which in turn is associated with the presence of numerous cardiometabolic alterations

Cell sizing of intact, flash-frozen adipose tissue

Histomorphometric analyses of adipose tissue usually require formalin fixation of fresh samples. Our objective was to determine if intact, flash-frozen whole adipose tissue samples stored at − 80 °C could be used for measurements developed for fresh-fixed adipose tissues. Portions of adipose tissue samples were either formalin-fixed immediately upon sampling or flash-frozen and stored at − 80 °C and then formalin-fixed during the thawing process. Mean adipocyte diameter was measured. Immunohistochemistry was performed on additional samples to identify macrophage subtypes (M1, CD14 + and M2, CD206 +) and total (CD68 +) number. All slides were counterstained using haematoxylin and eosin (H&E). Visual inspection of H&E-stained adipose tissue slides performed in a blinded fashion showed little or no sign of cell breakage in 74% of frozen-fixed samples and in 68% of fresh-fixed samples (p > 0.5). There was no difference in the distribution frequencies of adipocyte sizes in fresh-fixed vs. frozen-fixed tissues in both depots (p > 0.9). Mean adipocyte size from frozen-fixed samples correlated significantly and positively with adipocyte size from fresh-fixed samples (r = 0.74, p < 0.0001, for both depots). The quality of staining/immunostaining and appearance of tissue architecture were comparable in fresh-fixed vs. frozen-fixed samples. In conclusion, intact flash-frozen adipose tissue samples stored at − 80 °C can be used to perform techniques conventionally applied to fresh-fixed samples. This approach allows for retrospective studies with frozen human adipose tissue samples

Abdominal adipocyte populations in women with visceral obesity

Visceral obesity is independently related to numerous cardiometabolic alterations, with adipose tissue dysfunction as a central feature. Objective: To examine whether omental (OM) and subcutaneous (SC) adipocyte size populations in women relate to visceral obesity, cardiometabolic risk factors and adipocyte lipolysis independent of total adiposity. Design and Methods: OM and SC fat samples were obtained during gynecological surgery in 60 women [mean age: 46.1±5.9 years; mean BMI: 27.1±4.5 kg/m2 (range: 20.3-41.1 kg/m2)]. Fresh samples were treated with osmium tetroxide and were analyzed with a Multisizer Coulter. Cell size distributions were computed for each sample with exponential and Gaussian function fits. Results: Computed tomography-measured visceral fat accumulation was the best predictor of larger cell populations as well as the percentage of small cells in both OM and SC fat (p<0.0000 for all). Accordingly, women with visceral obesity had larger cells in the main population and higher proportion of small adipocytes independent of total adiposity (p≤0.05). Using linear regression analysis, we found that women characterized by larger-than-predicted adipocytes in either OM or SC adipose tissue presented higher visceral adipose tissue area, increased percentage of small cells and HOMAir index as well as higher OM adipocyte isoproterenol-, forskolin- and dibutyryl cAMP- stimulated lipolysis compared to women with smaller-than predicted adipocytes, independent of total adiposity (p≤0.05). Conclusion: Excess visceral adipose tissue accumulation is a strong marker of both adipocyte hypertrophy and increased number of small cells in either fat compartment, which relates to higher insulin resistance index and lipolytic response, independent of total adiposity

Circulating steroid levels as correlates of adipose tissue phenotype in premenopausal women

Background: Obesity-related alterations in the circulating steroid hormone profile remain equivocal in women. Our objective was to identify circulating steroid levels that relate to increased adiposity and altered adipose phenotype in premenopausal women. Materials and methods: In a sample of 42 premenopausal women (age 46±3 years; BMI 27.1±4.2 kg/m2 ), 19 plasma steroids were quantified by ESI-LC-MS/MS. Body composition and fat distribution were assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and computed tomography, respectively. Markers of adipose tissue function including adipocyte size distributions, radiological attenuation, and macrophage infiltration were also analyzed in surgically obtained visceral and subcutaneous fat samples. Results: Many negative correlations were observed between adiposity measurements such as BMI, body fat percentage or total abdominal adipose tissue area and plasma levels of androstenedione (r=-0.33 to -0.39, p≤0.04), androsterone (r=-0.30 to -0.38, p≤0.05) and plasma levels of steroid precursor pregnenolone (r=-0.36 to -0.46, p≤0.02). Visceral adipocyte hypertrophy was observed in patients with low pregnenolone concentrations (p<0.05). Visceral adipose tissue radiologic attenuation, a potential marker of adipocyte size, was also positively correlated with pregnenolone levels (r=0.33, p<0.05). Low levels of pregnenolone were related to increased number of macrophages infiltrating visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue (p<0.05). Conclusion: Plasma levels of androgens and their precursors are lower in women with increased adiposity and visceral adipocyte hypertrophy. Low circulating pregnenolone concentration may represent a marker of adipose tissue dysfunction

Increased adipose tissue indices of androgen catabolism and aromatization in women with metabolic dysfunction

Abstract Background Body fat distribution is a risk factor for obesity-associated comorbidities, and adipose tissue dysfunction plays a role in this association. In humans, there is a sex difference in body fat distribution, and steroid hormones are known to regulate several cellular processes within adipose tissue. Our aim was to investigate if intra-adipose steroid concentration and expression or activity of steroidogenic enzymes were associated with features of adipose tissue dysfunction in individuals with severe obesity. Methods Samples from 40 bariatric candidates (31 women, 9 men) were included in the study. Visceral (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) were collected during surgery. Adipose tissue morphology was measured by a combination of histological staining and semi-automated quantification. Following extraction, intra-adipose and plasma steroid concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography, electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Aromatase activity was estimated using product-over-substrate ratio, while AKR1C2 activity was measured directly by fluorogenic probe. Gene expression was measured by quantitative PCR. Results VAT aromatase activity was positively associated with VAT adipocyte hypertrophy (p-valueadj &lt; 0.01) and negatively with plasma HDL-cholesterol (p-valueadj &lt; 0.01), while SAT aromatase activity predicted dyslipidemia in women even after adjustment for waist circumference, age and hormonal contraceptive use. We additionally compared women with high and low visceral adiposity index (VAI) and found that VAT excess is characterized by adipose tissue dysfunction, increased androgen catabolism mirrored by increased AKR1C2 activity and higher aromatase expression and activity indices. Conclusion In women, increased androgen catabolism or aromatization is associated with visceral adiposity and adipose tissue dysfunction

Simultaneous quantification of estrogens and glucocorticoids in human adipose tissue by liquid-chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

The presence of estrogens, androgens and glucocorticoids as well as their receptors and steroid converting enzymes in adipose tissue has been established. Their contribution to diseases such as obesity, diabetes and hormone-dependent cancers is an active area of research. Our objective was to develop a LC–MS/MS method to quantify bioactive estrogens and glucocorticoids simultaneously in human adipose tissue. Estrogens and glucocorticoids were extracted from adipose tissue samples using solid-phase extraction. Estrogens were derivatized using 1-(2,4-dinitro-5-fluorophenyl)-4-methylpiperazine (PPZ) and methyl iodide to generate a permanently charged molecule (MPPZ). Steroids were separated and quantified by LC–MS/MS. The limit of quantitation for the steroids was between 15 and 100 pg per sample. Accuracy and precision were acceptable (<20%). Using this method, estradiol, estrone, cortisone and cortisol were quantified in adipose tissue from women with and without breast cancer. This novel assay of estrogens and glucocorticoids by LC–MS/MS coupled with derivatization allowed simultaneous quantification of a panel of steroids in human adipose tissue across the endogenous range of concentrations encountered in health and disease

Outcomes from elective colorectal cancer surgery during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic

This study aimed to describe the change in surgical practice and the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on mortality after surgical resection of colorectal cancer during the initial phases of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic

Outil d’aide à la détermination des meilleures Techniques Disponibles

Oeuvre déposée à l'Agence pour la protection des programme